Heraclius and Heraclius Constantine Gold Solidus

Historical Context

The reign of Emperor Heraclius (r. 610–641 CE) marked a critical epoch of existential conflict and institutional reorganization for the Eastern Roman Empire. Seizing the throne in October 610 CE following an armed expedition from the Exarchate of Carthage that toppled the tyrant Phocas, Heraclius faced immediate, catastrophic territorial collapse. Sasanian armies led by Shah Khosrow II overran the Levant, captured Jerusalem in 614 CE - carrying away the relic of the True Cross - and conquered Egypt by 619 CE, while Avar and Slavic confederations raided unchecked across the Balkan provinces up to the walls of Constantinople.

To ensure institutional stability and cement dynastic continuity amid ongoing crises, Heraclius established his succession early. On 3 May 612 CE, his first wife, Empress Eudokia, gave birth to their eldest son, Heraclius Constantine. Following Eudokia's death, the eight-month-old infant was crowned co-emperor (Augustus) on 22 January 613 CE. From that point onward, the imperial gold coinage of Constantinople incorporated the likeness of Heraclius Constantine beside his father, documenting the biological growth of the junior Augustus over a span of nearly three decades.

The issuance of this solidus between c. 616 and 625 CE coincided with severe fiscal mobilization. Facing an empty imperial treasury, Heraclius reached an unprecedented accord with Patriarch Sergius of Constantinople to borrow church plate, which was melted down to strike gold solidi and newly introduced silver hexagrams. These solidi maintained the traditional weight standard of approximately 4.45 to 4.50 grams of fine gold, providing the necessary liquidity to recruit soldiers, subsidize federate alliances, and fund the major counter-offensives launched into the Persian heartland beginning in 622 CE.

Obverse Iconographic Composition

The obverse displays two facing imperial busts of unequal proportions, representing the senior Augustus Heraclius and the junior Augustus Heraclius Constantine:

• Senior Augustus (Left): Heraclius is depicted on the left with a larger, broader bust and mature facial features. He wears a short, neatly trimmed square beard, a straight horizontal moustache, and hair flaring outward in distinct lateral locks beside the ears. He is dressed in the imperial chlamys, clasped at the right shoulder with a round fibula, and wears a simple diadem or circlet crown surmounted by a Latin cross.
• Junior Augustus (Right): Heraclius Constantine is depicted on the right, visibly smaller than his father to reflect his youth, but significantly larger than the infant portrayal used in earlier issues. He appears beardless and wears a matching chlamys and cross-surmounted crown.
• Field Device: Floating in the upper central field directly between the two crowns is a small, isolated equal-armed cross, reinforcing divine sanction over the collegiate imperial authority.

Obverse Epigraphy and Inscriptions

The obverse legend runs along the outer perimeter, encircling the imperial portraits in a clockwise direction:

• Visible Legend: dd NN hЄRACLIUS ЄT hЄRA CONST P P AV (with minor die cutting variants reading P P AVG or P P A)
• Script: Latin lettering showing early Byzantine cursive and Greek uncial influences, including the lowercase form h for H, lunate Є for E, and rounded S.
• Epigraphic Expansion: Domini Nostri Heraclius et Heraclius Constantinus Perpetui Augusti
• Translation: "Our Lords Heraclius and Heraclius Constantine, Perpetual Augusti."

Grammatically, the opening sequence dd NN represents the classical Roman numismatic doubling of initial consonants to denote a nominative plural abbreviation (Domini Nostri), formally establishing both figures as legitimate joint Augusti.

Reverse Iconographic Composition

The reverse field is dominated by a central cross potent - a cross whose four terminals end in straight perpendicular crossbars - mounted upon three diminishing steps that rest upon a horizontal exergual ground line.

This motif signifies the monument erected on the hill of Golgotha (Calvary) in Jerusalem, functioning as a primary symbol of Christian imperial victory. The three steps structurally evoke the ascent to Calvary while providing visual architectural grounding within the circular boundary of the coin die. Below the ground line, the exergue is occupied by the traditional mint signature.

Reverse Epigraphy and Inscriptions

The reverse features inscriptions flanking the central stepped cross and occupying the exergue:

• Field Inscription: Divided into two vertical segments along the border:
  • Left field (ascending from 7 o'clock to 11 o'clock): VICTORIA
  • Right field (descending from 1 o'clock to 5 o'clock): AVϚЧ followed by a workshop numeral mark resembling Δ or A.
• Exergue (6 o'clock): CONOB
• Script: Latin with transitional Byzantine cursive and Greek numeral characters, substituting stigma (Ϛ) for G and upsilon (Ч) for V/U.
• Epigraphic Expansion: Victoria Augustorum [Officina 4 / Delta or 1 / Alpha] / Constantinopoli Obryzum
• Translation: "Victory of the Augusti, [4th or 1st Mint Workshop] / [Struck at] Constantinople, [guaranteed] refined gold."

The exergual formula CONOB unites CON (Constantinople) with OB (obryzum, refined gold). In addition to designating gold purity, the Greek numerical value of OB (70 + 2 = 72) traditionally symbolized the Roman standard of striking 72 solidi to one Roman pound of gold.

The terminal workshop character at 5 o'clock exhibits converging diagonal strokes. Depending on whether the upper vertex is joined or displays horizontal crossbar traits under magnification, it represents Greek Delta (Δ, designating the 4th officina) or Alpha (A, the 1st officina).

Typology and Documented Variants

In Philip Grierson's standard classification for the Dumbarton Oaks Collection, the gold solidi of Heraclius struck at Constantinople are arranged into four overarching chronological classes based on the composition and maturation of the imperial family:

• Class I (c. 610–613 CE; DOC 1–7; Sear 731–733): Sole bust of Heraclius facing, wearing a plumed helmet or crested crown with pendilia, holding a globus cruciger. Stepped cross reverse. Struck prior to the co-coronation of his son.
• Class II (c. 613–629 CE; DOC 8–25): Two facing busts depicting Heraclius and Heraclius Constantine.
  • Subclass IIa (c. 613–616 CE; DOC 8–12; Sear 734–737): Heraclius with short beard; Heraclius Constantine rendered as a tiny, beardless infant bust.
  • Subclass IIb (c. 616–625 CE; DOC 13; Sear 738; MIB III 11): Heraclius with short beard; Heraclius Constantine rendered significantly larger as a growing youth. Reverse fields remain plain without subsidiary letters or monograms. Recorded workshop letters include Alpha through Iota. The institutional specimen in The Cleveland Museum of Art corresponds to this subclass.
  • Subclass IIc (c. 625–629 CE; DOC 14–25; Sear 739–748): Similar two busts, but reverse fields introduce control letters, monograms, or pellets.
• Class III (c. 629–631 CE; DOC 26–32; Sear 749–755): Two busts of equal size; Heraclius appears with an exceptionally long, parted beard and long moustache, while Heraclius Constantine wears a short beard.
• Class IV (c. 632–641 CE; DOC 33–50; Sear 756–770): Three standing figures: Heraclius in the center with a long beard, flanked by Heraclius Constantine and the younger half-brother Heraklonas.

Scholarly Debates and Attribution Limitations

Numismatic research has clarified several key debates surrounding this series:

• Origin of the Stepped Cross: A persistent nineteenth-century belief suggested that Heraclius introduced the cross potent on steps specifically to commemorate his recapture of the True Cross and its restitution to Jerusalem in 629/630 CE. Modern numismatic analysis rejects this narrative. The stepped cross was introduced as a reverse design under Emperor Tiberius II Constantine (578–582 CE) and was used continuously by Heraclius from his initial sole-reign solidi in 610 CE, predating both the loss of the relic in 614 CE and its recovery.
• Nature of Officina Letters: While Greek alphabetic numerals originally denoted physical workshops (officinae) within the Constantinople mint, studies by Michael Hendy and Philip Grierson indicate that by the seventh century, these markings had largely evolved into administrative batch controls or fiscal accounting marks rather than completely isolated physical production ateliers.
• Officina Assignment of the Museum Specimen: In the Dumbarton Oaks Collection catalogue, Subclass IIb (DOC 13) records specimens from officinae Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Epsilon, and Digamma/Stigma, but lacks an entry for Delta. A reading of the terminal reverse letter as Delta (Δ) classifies the Cleveland specimen as an unlisted workshop variant (DOC 13 var.), whereas a reading of Alpha (A) places it under DOC 13a. Because strike softness obscures the definitive stroke alignment, the exact officina remains attributed.
• Dynastic Identification: Co-emperor Heraclius Constantine (the future Constantine III, who died after a brief sole reign in 641 CE) must be distinguished both from Heraklonas (his younger half-brother born to Empress Martina, who appears on Class IV issues) and from Constantine IV "Pogonatos" (r. 668–685 CE, son of Constans II), who struck stylistically similar two-bust solidi later in the century.
• Institutional Data and Physical Metrics: The Cleveland Museum of Art records this specimen (accession 1968.56) as measuring 2 cm (13/16 in.) in diameter and weighing 4.5 g (0.16 oz.), acquired as a gift from William Mathewson Milliken. The die axis is unrecorded in institutional data and cannot be supplied without direct curatorial examination.

References

1. Solidus with Heraclius and his Son Heraclius Constantine (1968.56). The Cleveland Museum of Art, Collection Online, accession 1968.56
2. Catalogue of the Byzantine Coins in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection and in the Whittemore Collection, Volume 2: Phocas to Theodosius III, 602–717. Grierson, Philip. DOC II, Part 1: Phocas and Heraclius (602–641). Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 1968, pp. 216–254, no. 13
3. Byzantine Coins and Their Values. Sear, David R. 2nd rev. ed. London: Spink & Son Ltd., 1987, p. 153, no. 738
4. Moneta Imperii Byzantini (MIB), Band 3: Von Heraclius bis Leo III. / Alleinregierung (610–720). Hahn, Wolfgang. Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1981, p. 214, no. 11
5. Classical Numismatic Group Electronic Auction 574, Lot 661. CNG E-Auction 574 (6 November 2024), Lot 661, Heraclius solidus Class IIb