RIC III Antoninus Pius 384a (denarius)

Monetary Context and Consecration Ideology

The denarius had served as the backbone of Roman silver currency since the late third century BC and maintained its centrality throughout the high imperial period. Under Antoninus Pius, who reigned from 138 to 161 AD, the Roman monetary system experienced an era of remarkable stability, fiscal conservatism, and steady production. The silver denarius was struck alongside the gold aureus and bronze denominations such as the sestertius, dupondius, and as, maintaining an exchange rate of twenty-five denarii to one gold aureus. When Empress Annia Galeria Faustina, known to modern historians as Faustina the Elder, died in late 140 AD, Antoninus Pius responded with unprecedented commemorative honors. The Senate granted her formal apotheosis, transforming the deceased empress into Diva Faustina. As part of this state-sanctioned sanctification, a vast numismatic campaign was launched. While initial memorial strikings occurred in late 140 and 141 AD, Diva Faustina issues continued in vast numbers throughout the remainder of the reign of Antoninus Pius and even into that of Marcus Aurelius. The issue cataloged as RIC III Antoninus Pius 384a represents the earliest wave of this consecration output in 141 AD, explicitly focused on the formal act of consecration rather than the later, broader themes of eternity or divine providence.

Production Standards and the Mint of Rome

RIC III Antoninus Pius 384a was struck exclusively at the principal imperial mint located in Rome. The centralized mint in the capital was responsible for virtually all silver denarius production under Antoninus Pius, operating through an organized workshop system overseen by the procurator monetae. Die cutters at Rome produced dies of exceptional technical and artistic quality, utilizing iron dies engraved by hand to strike heated silver planchets between an anvil die and a punch die. Metallurgical analyses of Antonine denarii demonstrate that the silver standard remained relatively stable during this period, continuing the parameters established by Trajan's monetary adjustments and maintained under Hadrian. Denarii of this issue were targeted at a theoretical weight standard of approximately 3.15 to 3.4 grams, equivalent to around 1/96th of a Roman pound, though individual circulating specimens naturally display slight variances due to manual blank preparation. The fineness of the alloy stood at approximately 75 to 80 percent silver, with the remainder composed primarily of copper added to harden the alloy against mechanical wear. Production output for the early deification issues was substantial, meeting both the demands of imperial expenditure and the ideological imperative to distribute Faustina's consecrated image across all sectors of the empire.

Obverse Portraiture and Iconography

The obverse of RIC III Antoninus Pius 384a features a finely modeled right-facing bust of Faustina the Elder. The portrait is presented with dignified composure, adhering to the classicizing portrait style favored by the Antonine court. Faustina is shown draped, with the fabric of her mantle and tunic gathered delicately around the base of the neck and over the shoulders, reflecting traditional Roman matronal modesty. A defining characteristic of this portrait is Faustina's elaborate and highly distinctive coiffure, which set Roman aristocratic fashion in the 130s and 140s AD. Her hair is meticulously waved in horizontal loops or ridges across the sides of the cranium, pulled back from the forehead and temples, and drawn upwards to form a braided coil or nest resting atop the crown of her head. In early deification portraits produced in 141 AD, the features combine an individualized likeness, capturing her mature jawline and noble profile, with an idealized smoothness symbolizing her elevated status among the gods. The engraving is framed by an outer bead-and-reel or dotted border typical of imperial die production.

Reverse Design: The Peacock of Juno

The reverse of RIC III Antoninus Pius 384a depicts a peacock walking toward the right with its head turned back to face toward the left. In classical antiquity, the peacock was the sacred bird and chief companion of Juno, the queen of the Roman pantheon and goddess of marriage, fertility, and womanhood. Just as the eagle of Jupiter was employed on consecration coins of deceased emperors to represent their ascent to heaven and communion with the supreme deity, the peacock served as the definitive symbol for the apotheosis of deified empresses. On this specific variety, the peacock is depicted on the ground rather than in flight. Its plumage is engraved with textured detailing along the wings and body, terminating in a long, trailing train of tail feathers. The posture of the bird, turning its head backward over its mantle, creates a dynamic, balanced composition within the circular field of the coin. The image directly conveyed to the Roman public that Faustina's spirit had been transported to the celestial realm of Juno, establishing her as a patron deity of Roman women and a divine protectress of the state.

Inscriptions and Epigraphy

The epigraphy of RIC III Antoninus Pius 384a is marked by brevity and solemnity. The obverse bears the simple legend DIVA FAVSTINA, arranged clockwise along the circumference of the coin. The title DIVA denotes her consecrated status, explicitly identifying her as a goddess following the senatorial vote of deification. Unlike the coins struck during her lifetime, which bore titles such as FAVSTINA AVG ANTONINI AVG P P, the post-mortem issues shed standard political titles, stripping the legend down to her divine name. The reverse displays the single word CONSECRATIO, inscribed along the upper perimeter or divided across the field above the peacock. The term CONSECRATIO denotes the formal religious ceremony and constitutional act of apotheosis whereby a mortal ruler or empress was enrolled among the state gods of Rome. The lettering on both dies exhibits the disciplined, clear lapidary style characteristic of mid-second-century Roman mint epigraphy, executed with straight hastae, balanced serifs, and proportional letter spacing.

Typological Classification and Chronological Placement

In the standard classification system of Roman Imperial Coinage, RIC III 384 encompasses the silver denarii bearing the reverse legend CONSECRATIO with a peacock. Subtype 384a is differentiated by the posture of the peacock, which walks to the right with its head turned back to the left. It is distinguished from RIC III 384b, where the peacock walks to the left, as well as other related consecration denarii where the peacock stands facing with tail displayed in full glory, or where the bird is depicted bearing the empress aloft on its back. Chronologically, this specific issue belongs to the immediate aftermath of Faustina's death in 141 AD. Numismatists distinguish this initial funerary group from the subsequent, voluminous issues celebrating AETERNITAS, AVGVSTA, and specific deities such as Ceres and Vesta, which dominated the later years of Antoninus Pius's principate. The explicit CONSECRATIO type represents the initial announcement of the new cult of Diva Faustina, issued concurrently with matching aurei and bronze sestertii featuring identical or complementary reverse motifs.

Circulation, Hoard Presence, and Longevity

The denarii of Diva Faustina achieved exceptionally wide circulation throughout the Roman Empire. Because Faustina died relatively early in the long twenty-three-year reign of Antoninus Pius, millions of deification coins entered the money supply and remained in active use for generations. Hoard evidence from Roman Britain, Gaul, the Rhine and Danube frontiers, and Italy consistently reveals high concentrations of Diva Faustina denarii alongside issues of Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius. Because of their robust silver content relative to subsequent third-century issues, denarii of type RIC III 384a circulated well into the Severan period. They were gradually removed from everyday circulation during the middle of the third century AD, particularly following the introduction of the double-denarius (antoninianus) by Caracalla and the rapid debasements under the barracks emperors. Many surviving specimens display moderate to heavy circulation wear, reflecting decades of continuous market transactions before being buried in savings hoards or melted down for lower-fineness coinages.

References

1. The Metallurgy of Roman Silver Coinage: From the Reform of Nero to the Reform of Trajan. pp. 520-535
2. Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum, Vol. IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus. p. 54, no. 384
3. The Roman Imperial Coinage, Vol. III: Antoninus Pius to Commodus. p. 71, no. 384a
4. Online Coins of the Roman Empire: RIC III Antoninus Pius 384a (denarius). ric.3.ant.384a_denarius
5. Untersuchungen zur römischen Reichsprägung des zweiten Jahrhunderts, Teil III: Die Reichsprägung zur Zeit des Antoninus Pius. nos. 400-410