Elagabalus Bronze Sestertius RIC IV Elagabalus 358d

Monetary Context and Economic Environment

Under the Severan dynasty and continuing into the reign of Elagabalus from AD 218 to 222, the Roman monetary system was characterized by ongoing fiscal pressures that significantly impacted token coinage and billon issues. While Septimius Severus and Caracalla had noticeably reduced the fineness of the silver denarius and introduced the double denarius or antoninianus, bronze denominations such as the sestertius, dupondius, and as retained substantial physical mass and purchasing utility in metropolitan and domestic commerce. The sestertius remained the premier large base-metal denomination of the empire, serving both as an everyday medium for major commercial exchanges and as the traditional unit of imperial accounting. Unlike silver, which suffered frequent reductions in intrinsic purity to fund administrative costs and military bonuses, copper-alloy sestertii continued to be produced from orichalcum or mixed copper alloys under the formal authorization of the Senate, signified by the traditional formula Senatus Consulto. The production of sestertii during the sole reign of Elagabalus provided vital liquidity for domestic retail markets in Italy and the western provinces, where civic bronze coinages were scarce compared to the eastern provincial cities. RIC IV Elagabalus 358d exemplifies this dual nature of Severan base-metal money, serving as a robust transactional vehicle and as an expansive, highly visible platform for official political messaging.

Production, Technology, and Mint Attribution

The production of RIC IV Elagabalus 358d was concentrated exclusively at the primary imperial mint in Rome, which possessed the heavy machinery, multiple officinae, and specialized personnel necessary for casting large copper-alloy flans and striking substantial broad medallic blanks. Sestertii of this period typically ranged between 20 and 26 grams, with flan diameters frequently falling between 29 and 33 millimetres, although individual specimens exhibited significant variance due to manual flan preparation and unregulated alloy compositions. By the Severan period, the composition of the sestertius had gradually shifted from the classical high-zinc brass of the early Augustan era toward a quaternary bronze containing variable proportions of copper, zinc, tin, and lead. Mint technicians prepared circular planchets by pouring molten alloy into gang moulds or flattening cast droplets, followed by warm or cold striking between hand-cut iron or bronze dies. The obverse die was fixed into an anvil to withstand the repeated heavy blows of a hammer, while the reverse die was held manually by a hammerer or suspended in an aligned holder. Die axes for this issue usually demonstrate a regular upright or inverted orientation, commonly recorded at 12 o'clock or 6 o'clock. The Rome mint maintained tight control over the stylistic rendering of portraiture, letter cutting, and iconographic attributes across all active officinae striking base metal.

Obverse Iconography and Imperial Portraiture

The obverse of RIC IV Elagabalus 358d presents a youthful yet formal imperial portrait of the emperor facing right. The catalogue designation 358d specifies a bust that is laureate, draped, and cuirassed, distinguishing this sub-variety from companion issues featuring draped-only or cuirassed-only busts. The laurel wreath symbolizes victorious authority and imperium, tied at the occiput with distinct ribbon ties that drape over the nape of the neck. The drapery of the paludamentum or military cloak is gathered gracefully across the shoulders, revealing the segmented plates and decorative elements of the cuirass beneath. Die engravers at Rome captured the distinctive physiognomy of Elagabalus, characterized by a rounded adolescent jawline, close-cropped curly hair rendered in neat clusters beneath the wreath, and relatively large almond-shaped eyes. The portraiture consciously avoids the mature, bearded visage of his immediate predecessors, yet it adheres to the dynastic visual templates established by the Antonine and Severan houses to reinforce the youth's asserted paternity as the son of Caracalla. The relief is typically bold, raised cleanly above the fields to create a commanding and dignified imperial profile.

Reverse Iconography: Libertas and the Celestial Star

The reverse design of RIC IV Elagabalus 358d depicts Libertas, the personification of constitutional freedom and personal liberty, standing frontally with her head turned to the left. In her extended right hand, she holds a pileus, the soft brimless felt cap traditionally presented to freed enslaved persons during formal manumission ceremonies, serving as an ancient Roman emblem of legal liberty. In her left hand, Libertas supports a long, vertical sceptre resting on the groundline, which evokes sovereign majesty, peaceful governance, and enduring constitutional order. She is garbed in a long, draped stola that cascades to her feet in soft rhythmic folds, gathered loosely around the waist. Positioned prominently in the left or right upper field is a multi-rayed star, an attribute of critical iconographic importance in the coinage of Elagabalus. While stars historically denoted divine protection or deification, in this specific context the star represents the sacred presence and patronage of the sun god Elagabal of Emesa, whom the young ruler served as hereditary high priest. Flanking the standing personification in the lower fields are the large letters S and C, denoting Senatus Consulto, the constitutional formula indicating senatorial assent for base-metal coinage. The synthesis of traditional Roman Libertas with eastern astral symbolism embodies the cultural blending that defined the religious administration of the period.

Inscriptions, Epigraphy, and Titulature

The inscriptions on RIC IV Elagabalus 358d are composed in standard imperial Latin capital script, rendered with neat serifed lettering that circles the inner rim of the die. The obverse legend reads IMP CAES M AVR ANTONINVS PIVS AVG, representing the fully expanded titulature Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Pius Augustus. This nomenclature was adopted deliberately to align Elagabalus with his proclaimed father Caracalla and his revered grandfather Marcus Aurelius, systematically suppressing his birth name of Varius Avitus Bassianus in official state media. The presence of PIVS emphasizes religious piety and familial devotion, essential virtues for legitimizing his ascent to the purple. On the reverse, the circumferential legend reads LIBERTAS AVGVSTI, supplemented by S C across the lower fields. Translated as the Liberty of the Emperor, this phrase explicitly links the preservation of civic freedoms and legal protections to the personal generosity, wisdom, and virtue of the reigning Augustus. Epigraphically, the letter forms are clean and compact, displaying balanced proportions typical of early third-century die-cutting at the capital, with clear breaks designed to accommodate the head of the emperor on the obverse and the raised attributes of Libertas on the reverse.

Typology, Die Variants, and Chronological Placement

Within the fourth volume of The Roman Imperial Coinage, the overarching type number 358 covers the Libertas Augusti reverse design across distinct bust varieties, designated by sub-letters. Variety 358d is specifically defined by the bust facing right that is laureate, draped, and cuirassed. Other related variations catalogued under RIC 358 include portraits with laureate and draped busts without visible cuirass, or laureate and cuirassed busts without drapery. Because the reverse inscription omits consular iterations, tribunician power counts, or imperial acclamations, precise annual dating relies on portrait development, hoard associations, and the introduction of religious attributes. The presence of the star in the field strongly suggests a chronological placement in the middle to late portions of the reign, approximately AD 220 to 222, coinciding with the official elevation of the Emesene solar cult in Rome and the construction of the Elagabalium on the Palatine Hill. Die studies of Severan bronze issues demonstrate that obverse dies were occasionally shared across multiple reverse types carrying complementary themes, such as Fides Exercitus, Providentia Deorum, or Liberalitas, reflecting coordinated administrative mint runs rather than isolated ceremonial commissions.

Circulation Patterns, Wear, and Archaeological Context

Once released from the urban mint of Rome, sestertii of RIC IV Elagabalus 358d entered wide regional circulation throughout the Italian peninsula, the Danubian frontier military installations, and the western provinces including Gaul, Britain, and Hispania. In these areas, the supply of freshly minted sestertii was crucial for supporting local retail trade, paying civilian contractors, and sustaining cash-based daily market transactions. Unlike silver denarii and antoniniani, which were frequently hoarded during periods of economic instability or gathered for large-scale military distributions, large bronze coins remained in active commercial circulation for extended periods. Consequently, archaeological finds of sestertii from the Severan era regularly exhibit moderate to heavy surface wear, corrosion from acidic soil conditions, and edge bruising from repeated handling. Hoard evidence from western Europe shows that Severan sestertii frequently circulated alongside worn specimens dating back to the Antonine and even Flavian periods, remaining in circulation well into the mid-third century until the hyperinflation of the AD 250s and 260s rendered heavy copper-alloy denominations economically obsolete. Single stray finds and excavations at urban centres confirm that issues featuring Libertas were integrated seamlessly into general currency pools without regional discrimination.

References

1. I Grandi Bronzi Imperiali: Vol. IV-1 (Caracalla, Diadumeniano, Elagabalo). Elagabalus no. 25
2. Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum, Vol. V: Pertinax to Elagabalus. pp. 588-592
3. Online Coins of the Roman Empire: RIC IV Elagabalus 358d. ric.4.el.358d
4. The Roman Imperial Coinage, Vol. IV, Part II: Macrinus to Pupienus. p. 59, no. 358d