Elagabalus Bronze Sestertius, RIC IV Elagabalus 334

Monetary Context and Severan Denominational Structure

During the reign of Elagabalus (AD 218 to 222), the Roman monetary system continued along the institutional trajectory established by the Severan dynasty. The sestertius retained its traditional status as the principal large-format bronze denomination, serving everyday commercial transactions while functioning as a major vehicle for state-level ideological messaging. Although silver coinage, particularly the denarius and the double denarius (antoninianus), endured periodic debasement under Septimius Severus and Caracalla, the orichalcum sestertius maintained an established physical standard, typically struck on heavy brass flans weighing between 18 and 24 grams with diameters ranging from 28 to 32 millimeters. Under Elagabalus, the sestertius fulfilled both fiscal and public functions. It was required for high-volume urban commerce and state payments throughout Rome and the western provinces. The broad flan of the sestertius offered die engravers an expansive surface for complex multi-figure religious tableaux that could not be rendered easily on the smaller flan of the denarius. RIC IV Elagabalus 334 represents the culmination of this medium, conveying the radical transformation of the Roman emperor from a traditional civil and military magistrate into the visible high priest of an imported Eastern cult.

Mint of Rome and Manufacturing Techniques

The entire production of RIC IV Elagabalus 334 is attributed securely to the principal imperial mint at Rome. While provincial and eastern branch mints such as Antioch struck silver issues during the Severan period, large orichalcum and bronze sestertii of the central imperial series were produced exclusively in the capital by experienced officinae under the administrative direction of the rationalis. Manufacture of these sestertii involved casting heavy discs of orichalcum, an alloy predominantly composed of copper and zinc, followed by hot striking between engraved iron dies. The die carving for this issue exhibits the refined classicism typical of early third-century Roman engravers, notwithstanding the unusual and non-traditional subject matter required by imperial direction. Die alignment generally follows the typical imperial standard of six o'clock or twelve o'clock. Surviving specimens show careful preparation of the flans, though slight irregularities in centering and edge cracking are standard features of high-relief third-century base-metal striking.

Obverse Portraiture and the Horn Motif

The obverse of RIC IV Elagabalus 334 displays a right-facing bust of the young emperor, laureate, draped, and cuirassed. The defining numismatic feature of this late portrait type is the distinct projection extending above the forehead, universally described in numismatic literature as a horn. Introduced in the later stages of the reign, approximately AD 221 to 222, this feature represents a striking departure from standard Roman imperial iconography. Scholars have long debated the exact nature and symbolic meaning of this horn. Early antiquarian commentators interpreted it as a bull's horn signifying divine power, generative vigor, or fertility associated with Dionysian or Near Eastern cults. More recent archaeological and numismatic research suggests it depicts the dried phallus of an ox or bull, a recognized sacerdotal talisman worn by Syrian priests of the Sun God of Emesa to avert evil and signify ritual authority. On this bronze issue, the horn is rendered prominently curving outward from the hairline beneath the laurel wreath, signaling the absolute priority Elagabalus placed on his priestly persona.

Reverse Iconography and Sacerdotal Ritual

The reverse of RIC IV Elagabalus 334 presents an elaborate sacred scene centered on Elagabalus officiating in his sacerdotal capacity. The emperor stands turned toward the left, clad in long, flowing garments described as Syrian priestly robes (the subuncula and dalmatic vestments). In his right hand, he holds a patera, a shallow sacrificial libation bowl, extending it outward to pour an offering over an illuminated, garlanded altar standing before him. In his left hand, the emperor cradles an upright or diagonal object, traditionally catalogued in numismatic references as a club or a cypress branch, an emblem tied to Near Eastern celestial and solar rites. Beside the altar, a bull lies recumbent or crouches, symbolizing the sacrificial victims presented in monumental daily ceremonies at the Elagabalium on the Palatine Hill. In the upper left field, a solitary star is depicted, signifying the presence of the Sun God Sol Elagabalus and denoting divine approval. Flanking the lower composition are the large letters S C (Senatus Consulto), formally preserving the constitutional fiction of senatorial authority over bronze token issues.

Inscriptions and Epigraphic Analysis

The obverse inscription reads IMP CAES M AVR ANTONINVS PIVS AVG. This legend proclaims the emperor's official public identity as Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Pius Augustus, recalling the Antonine lineage fabricated by his grandmother Julia Maesa and Severan loyalists who claimed he was the natural son of Caracalla. The inclusion of PIVS emphasizes traditional Roman dutifulness, providing a conservative epigraphic frame that stands in sharp contrast to the unorthodox visual iconography of the horned portrait. The reverse inscription is strictly titulary: P M TR P V COS IIII P P S C. This legend decodes as Pontifex Maximus, Tribunicia Potestate V, Consul IIII, Pater Patriae, Senatus Consulto. The sequence records Elagabalus's fifth renewal of tribunician power and his fourth ordinary consulship. The presence of S C at the lower sides of the reverse field confirms senatorial sanction for the issue, demonstrating how radically atypical religious imagery was accommodated within standard Roman constitutional formulae.

Typology and Chronological Dating

The dating of RIC IV Elagabalus 334 is anchored securely by its epigraphic formula. Elagabalus entered his fourth consulship (COS IIII) on January 1, AD 222, alongside his cousin and newly adopted heir Alexander Severus. His fifth tribunician power (TR P V) commenced in late AD 221 or on January 1, AD 222, according to the reckoning adopted by the Rome mint. Consequently, this coin type was produced strictly within the brief interval between January 1, AD 222, and the emperor's murder on March 11, AD 222. Within the broader typology of Severan bronze coinage, RIC 334 stands alongside identical reverse types struck in gold and silver, including aurei and denarii. While earlier issues from AD 219 through 221 depicted conventional imperial virtues such as Fides, Providentia, and Victoria, the late series produced between late 221 and early 222 is dominated by the sacred ritual type. The issue reflects the final, uncompromising phase of the emperor's religious policy, when all major denominations produced in Rome were commanded to publicize the cult of the Emesene god.

Circulation, Hoard Evidence, and Damnatio Memoriae

Due to its production in the final ten weeks of Elagabalus's reign, the volume of RIC IV Elagabalus 334 struck was limited compared to earlier sestertius issues. Following the assassination of Elagabalus and his mother Julia Soaemias on March 11, AD 222, the Senate decreed a strict damnatio memoriae against the fallen emperor. Many public monuments were razed, and imperial inscriptions were chiseled away throughout the empire. While bronze coinage was not systematically recalled on a universal scale, the circulation life of RIC 334 was affected by these political events. Numerous specimens recovered from western provincial river deposits, urban excavations, and hoards show evidence of intentional defacement, particularly intentional scratching across the horned obverse portrait. Surviving specimens often exhibit moderate to heavy surface wear, indicating that despite the regime change, economic practicalities dictated that these heavy sestertii remained in circulation alongside the coinage of Alexander Severus and subsequent third-century rulers.

References

1. Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum, Volume V: Pertinax to Elagabalus. pp. 580-585
2. Online Coins of the Roman Empire: RIC IV Elagabalus 334. RIC IV Elagabalus 334
3. The Roman Imperial Coinage, Volume IV, Part II: Macrinus to Pupienus. p. 59, no. 334
4. Under Divine Auspices: Divine Ideology and the Visualisation of Imperial Power in the Severan Period. pp. 163-214
5. Roman Coins and Their Values, Volume II: The Accession of Nerva to the Death of Caracalla and the Severan Dynasty. no. 7578