Salonina Billon Antoninianus, RIC V Salonina (2) 11

Monetary Context and Debasement

The antoninianus catalogued as RIC V Salonina (2) 11 was minted during one of the most turbulent monetary epochs in Roman history. Following the catastrophic defeat and capture of Emperor Valerian I by the Sasanian king Shapur I in AD 260, Gallienus was left to govern the Roman world amidst multiple military usurpations, territorial secession in Gaul and Palmyra, and recurrent barbarian invasions. This systemic crisis placed unprecedented financial demands on the imperial treasury, necessitating an exponential increase in coin production while access to silver bullion was severely constrained. Consequently, the sole reign of Gallienus between AD 260 and AD 268 witnessed the collapse of the traditional silver standard of the Roman antoninianus. While early joint-reign antoniniani under Valerian and Gallienus maintained silver fineness between fifteen and twenty percent, the sole reign issues plummeted to under ten percent in the early 260s AD and declined further to roughly two to four percent silver by AD 267 and AD 268. The metal of RIC V Salonina (2) 11 is properly described as billon, a severely debased copper alloy containing only a thin residual wash or surface enrichment of silver produced through chemical blanching of blanks before striking. As the primary circulating medium of the mid-third century, this heavily debased antoninianus functionally displaced all surviving higher-grade silver denominations and traditional civic or bronze token currencies in daily commercial transactions across Italy and the central provinces.

Production and Mint Organization at Rome

Production of RIC V Salonina (2) 11 is securely assigned to the imperial mint at Rome. During the sole reign of Gallienus, the Rome mint expanded its industrial capacity dramatically to meet wartime logistics, operating between six and twelve distinct striking workshops, or officinae. Antoniniani struck in the name of Salonina were integrated directly into this workshop system, frequently assigned to specific officinae working simultaneously alongside those producing coinage for Gallienus. Physical specimens of RIC V Salonina (2) 11 exhibit the typical manufacturing traits of Rome mint products of the mid-260s AD: thin, irregular flans, variable striking pressure, and high die exhaustion. Die axes generally cluster around twelve o'clock or six o'clock, reflecting standardized die alignment practices, though misalignment occurs regularly. Flans were cast in open moulds or snipped from cast alloy strips before striking, often leaving irregular edges, cracks, and uneven circumferences. The weight distribution for this type displays significant variance characteristic of mass production under wartime pressure. Although struck to a theoretical standard hovering around 2.80 to 3.20 grams, individual surviving specimens often fluctuate between 2.20 and 3.80 grams, demonstrating that mint officials weighed blanks collectively by the Roman pound (al marco) rather than verifying individual flan weights before striking.

Obverse Iconography and Imperial Status

The obverse of RIC V Salonina (2) 11 features the diademed and draped bust of Empress Cornelia Salonina facing right. Her hair is rendered in the characteristic mid-third-century imperial coiffure, combed back smoothly in horizontal waves from the forehead and gathered up the nape of the neck into a broad plait or braid secured at the crown of the head by a stephane or diadem. Beneath the truncation of the bust rests an upward-curving crescent moon. In imperial numismatic iconography, the crescent served as the gendered counterpart to the solar radiate crown worn by emperors, functioning as the formal denominations sign that identified the coin as a double denarius or antoninianus. Beyond its metrological function, the celestial crescent linked the empress conceptually to nocturnal celestial stability and deities such as Luna, complementing the solar imagery of Sol and Apollo favored by Gallienus. The portraiture across different dies of RIC V Salonina (2) 11 ranges from classicizing, graceful profiles executed by skilled engravers early in the sole reign to more stylized, sharp-featured effigies produced by secondary workshops towards AD 267 and AD 268.

Reverse Design: Juno and the Peacock

The reverse iconography of RIC V Salonina (2) 11 presents a traditional manifestation of the supreme Roman goddess Juno, the divine protector of women, marriage, and the state. Juno is shown standing draped, facing left in a classicizing pose with her weight distributed onto her right leg. In her extended right hand, she holds a patera, a shallow ritual dish employed in pouring wine during sacred sacrifices, while her left hand cradles a tall, upright sceptre symbolizing regal sovereignty. At her feet to the left stands a miniature peacock, the sacred bird traditionally sacred to Juno in classical Greco-Roman mythology. This iconographic ensemble emphasizes religious piety (pietas) and imperial protection, invoking Juno's heavenly guardianship over the empress, the imperial family, and the troubled Roman realm. The design belongs to an enduring lineage of Roman imperial empress types where the consort is equated with or placed under the direct patronage of Juno Regina or Juno Conservatrix. Engraving quality varies across the reverse dies of this issue, with some dies rendering the plumage of the peacock and drapery folds of Juno with delicate linear precision, whereas other mass-produced dies exhibit simplified, stiff outlines.

Epigraphy and Legend Variations

The inscriptions of RIC V Salonina (2) 11 are formulated in concise, formal Latin epigraphy. The obverse legend reads SALONINA AVG, an abbreviated form of 'Salonina Augusta'. By omitting additional matrilineal titles or the name Cornelia, this concise formulation was standard for regular antoniniani struck at the Rome mint during the sole reign of Gallienus, contrasting with the longer early formulas such as CORNELIA SALONINA AVG that predominated during the joint reign of AD 253 to AD 260. The reverse legend reads IVNO CONSERVAT, a standard epigraphic truncation of 'Iuno Conservatrix' ('Juno the Preserver' or 'Juno the Protector'). The use of the abbreviated CONSERVAT instead of the unabbreviated CONSERVATRIX was common in the crowded die fields of the Rome mint, allowing bold, legible lettering around the central figure of the goddess. Die variants may present minor differences in letter spacing, punctuation, and officina marks. In some workshop emissions of the Rome mint, single officina marks (such as Greek or Roman workshop numerals) appear in the reverse field or in the exergue, while other dies remain entirely unmarked. The epigraphy displays the typical late-third-century capital lettering with flared serifs and variable letter heights.

Typology and Chronological Classification

In the standard reference classification of Roman Imperial Coinage Volume V, Part 1, Percy H. Webb categorized this issue as RIC V Salonina (2) 11 within the sole reign emissions of Salonina at Rome. Modern numismatic studies, spearheaded by Robert Göbl in 'Die Münzprägung der Kaiser Valerianus I., Gallienus, Saloninus (253/268)', have further refined the chronological sequence of Gallienus's sole reign into sequential issues based on officina organization, mark systems, and stylistic evolution. Göbl assigned the Rome mint IVNO CONSERVAT series with the standing goddess and peacock to the broader central emissions of Gallienus's sole reign, dating primarily between AD 260 and AD 266, before the celebrated animal series of the tenth and eleventh issues in AD 267 and AD 268. RIC V Salonina (2) 11 must be distinguished from neighboring issues displaying IVNO REGINA or IVNONI CONS AVG, as well as contemporaneous eastern emissions from mints such as Antioch or Siscia, which employ different stylistic portraits, distinctive fabric, and alternative field marks. The catalogued type constitutes a core, high-volume production unit within the Rome mint's repertory dedicated to Salonina.

Circulation Patterns and Archaeological Evidence

Antoniniani of the RIC V Salonina (2) 11 type circulated extensively throughout the central and western provinces of the Roman Empire during the late AD 260s and the AD 270s. Because of its severely debased billon fabric, this issue was subject to the economic principle of Gresham's Law: earlier, higher-fineness antoniniani of the Severan, Gordianic, and early joint-reign periods were systematically hoarded and withdrawn from commerce, leaving base billon coins of Gallienus and Salonina to dominate everyday market circulation. Archaeological finds and numismatic hoard data confirm that specimens of RIC V Salonina (2) 11 are pervasive in mid-to-late third-century coin hoards across Italy, the Iberian peninsula, Britain, Gaul, and the Danube frontier. Large-scale hoards such as the Cunetio and Normanby hoards in Roman Britain contain numerous examples of this specific Rome mint issue alongside other sole reign billon coins. Although the secession of the Gallic Empire in AD 260 created a distinct political border, central Roman antoniniani like RIC V Salonina (2) 11 crossed regional frontiers through interprovincial military payments, commerce, and private movement, frequently remaining in active circulation until the sweeping currency reforms of Aurelian in AD 274.

References

1. Coin Hoards and Hoarding in the Roman Empire. Chapter 4: The Third Century Crisis
2. Die Münzprägung der Kaiser Valerianus I., Gallienus, Saloninus (253/268), Regalianus (260) und Macrianus/Quietus (260/262). Moneta Imperii Romani 36, Vienna (1995)
3. Online Coins of the Roman Empire: RIC V Salonina (2) 11. Type record ric.5.sala(2).11
4. The Roman Imperial Coinage, Volume V, Part I: Valerian to Florian. p. 192, no. 11