Hadrian Sestertius, RIC II, Part 3 (second edition) Hadrian 641

Monetary Context and Denominational System

During the reign of Hadrian (AD 117 to 138), the Roman imperial monetary system maintained the traditional denominational structure established by Augustus and refined by the Flavian and adoptive emperors. Within this hierarchy, the sestertius remained the premier large base-metal denomination, valued at four asses, two dupondii, or one quarter of a silver denarius. The denomination was struck in orichalcum, a golden-yellow copper alloy featuring approximately fifteen to twenty percent zinc, which visually distinguished it from pure copper fractions and conferred substantial tactile gravitas in regular market circulation. Beyond its fundamental economic function as the primary accounting unit across public expenditure, taxation, and large civic transactions, the sestertius was Rome's most influential pictorial medium. Its broad flan provided die engravers with an expansive canvas for sophisticated political and imperial messaging. For Hadrian, who initiated sweeping administrative reforms and embarked on extensive journeys to stabilize the provinces, the sestertius served as an indispensable vehicle for broadcasting policy initiatives. The EXPED AVG series, represented here by RIC II, Part 3 (second edition) Hadrian 641, was commissioned to explain and celebrate the princeps taking the field, framing imperial absence from the capital as a dutiful campaign to safeguard the boundaries of the empire.

Production Standards and Mint Organization

The production of RIC II, Part 3 (second edition) Hadrian 641 was centered exclusively at the imperial mint in Rome. Under Hadrian, the mint of Rome operated with advanced administrative efficiency, divided into distinct workshops or officinae that coordinated the output of gold, silver, and base-metal coinages. Sestertii of this era adhered to a nominal target weight of approximately twenty-five to twenty-eight grams with flan diameters generally spanning thirty-one to thirty-four millimeters, although slight variations occurred due to manual blank-casting techniques and alloy variations. Striking orichalcum flans required enormous mechanical force, achieved by hammering heated blanks between heavy iron dies. The obverse die was set into an anvil while the reverse die was held in an iron punch. Die axes for this issue predominantly cluster around the twelve o'clock or six o'clock positions, reflecting regularized mint procedures. Metallurgical composition was carefully regulated to preserve the golden luster of orichalcum, though modern archaeological specimens frequently exhibit deep olive, dark green, or brownish patination as a consequence of burial conditions and surface leaching of zinc over time.

Obverse Iconography and Imperial Portraiture

The obverse of this sestertius displays a laureate, cuirassed bust of Hadrian facing right, viewed from the front, with the pteryges cropped from view at the shoulder. This bust style belongs to Hadrian's mature iconographic phase, established around AD 121, which broke decisively from the clean-shaven conventions of the Julio-Claudian, Flavian, and Trajanic dynasties. Hadrian's carefully curled hair and trimmed beard, styled after Hellenic philosophical and military ideals, signaled intellectual distinction while continuing to emphasize imperatorial dignity. The cuirassed torso, shown frontally, projects martial preparedness and supreme command over the legions. The laurel wreath encircling the brow, tied at the nape with trailing ribbons, serves as the quintessential emblem of victory and imperium. The omission or cropping of elaborate shoulder pteryges yields a streamlined, powerful bust line, centering visual focus on the emperor's stern facial features, resolute gaze, and strong jawline. This portrait type set the stylistic standard for urban Rome's die-cutters during Hadrian's third consulship.

Reverse Iconography: Hadrian in the Field

The reverse type presents an equestrian scene of profound ideological weight: Hadrian mounted on a pacing or cantering horse moving to the left, raising his right hand in an adlocutio or salutation gesture and holding a transverse spear in his left hand. The motif visually translates the concept of the imperial expeditio, encapsulating the departure and active campaigning of the emperor as commander-in-chief. Equestrian iconography had a celebrated history on Roman coinage, traditionally linked to triumphal adventus ceremonies or decursio cavalry maneuvers. On RIC II, Part 3 (second edition) Hadrian 641, the equestrian composition is tailored specifically to communicate movement, vigilance, and field command. The emperor is depicted in dynamic transit, wearing traveling or military dress. The raised hand conveys both peaceful assurance to provincial subjects and commanding authority to the assembled troops, while the spear serves as a clear reminder of Roman armed deterrence along the frontier zones.

Epigraphic Structure and Inscriptions

The inscriptions on this type are divided systematically between the obverse perimeter, reverse perimeter, and reverse exergue. The obverse legend reads IMP CAESAR TRAIAN HADRIANVS AVG. This formula records Hadrian's status as Imperator, adoptive son of the deified Trajan (Traianus), and holder of the supreme title Augustus. Rendered in clean lapidary Roman capitals, the epigraphy reflects the formal lettering style of Rome's urban monumental stone inscriptions. The reverse legend is arranged in three distinct elements: the continuous upper marginal inscription P M TR P COS III, the exergual legend EXPED AVG, and the senatorial sanction S C. The upper legend enumerates Hadrian's chief constitutional offices: Pontifex Maximus (chief priest), Tribunicia Potestate (possessor of tribunician power), and Consul Tertium (consul for the third time). The exergual legend EXPED AVG represents an abbreviation of Expeditio Augusti, identifying the specific imperial expedition. The letters S C, abbreviating Senatus Consulto ('by decree of the Senate'), occupy either the exergue or the left and right fields, validating the production of base-metal currency under the nominal authority of the Roman Senate.

Typological Classification and Chronological Placement

In the revised Roman Imperial Coinage series, this specific issue is designated as RIC II, Part 3 (second edition) Hadrian 641. Earlier scholarship by Harold Mattingly in BMCRE III and Paul Strack in his foundational corpus grouped Hadrian's EXPED AVG coinages among the military travel issues struck during Hadrian's third consulship, which commenced in AD 119 and was maintained as an unvarying titular marker throughout the remainder of his reign. Modern numismatic consensus, crystallized in the second edition of RIC II, Part 3, places type 641 securely between AD 121 and 123. This dating aligns with the historical launch of Hadrian's first great journey through the western provinces, where he toured Gaul, inspected military installations along the Upper and Lower German frontiers, and crossed the English Channel to Britain in AD 122 to initiate the construction of Hadrian's Wall. Type 641 is distinguished typologically from neighboring varieties by its combination of the front-facing, laureate, cuirassed bust without visible pteryges on the obverse, and the horseman riding left rather than right on the reverse.

Circulation Patterns and Archaeological Context

Once released by the Rome mint, sestertii of type RIC 641 circulated extensively throughout Italy and the western provinces. Because the sestertius possessed substantial purchasing power, it did not turn over as rapidly in pocket-change transactions as the copper as or semis, but it regularly traveled across provincial borders in administrative disbursements, military supply contracts, and elite commercial dealings. Archaeological finds from frontier forts along the Rhine and Danube, as well as civilian settlement contexts in Gaul and Roman Britain, confirm that sestertii of Hadrian's early-to-mid reign circulated for generations. Due to the high quality and density of orichalcum, these coins often remained active well into the third century AD, showing extensive surface wear and edge softening before final deposition. Hoards buried during the turbulent mid-third-century monetary crises frequently contain heavily worn sestertii of Hadrian, demonstrating an enduring functional lifespan of more than a century within the Roman imperial economy.

References

1. Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum, Vol. III: Nerva to Hadrian. Hadrian, Rome Mint, Sestertii
2. Itinera principum: Geschichte und Typologie der Kaiserreisen im Romischen Reich. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1986, pp. 188-210
3. The Roman Imperial Coinage, Vol. II, Part 3: Hadrian. Type 641, pp. 128-132
4. Untersuchungen zur romischen Reichspragung des zweiten Jahrhunderts, Teil II: Die Reichspragung zur Zeit des Hadrian. Stuttgart, 1933, pp. 110-125