Licinius Copper-Alloy Nummus

Monetary Context and Denominational Evolution

The copper-alloy nummus struck under Licinius belongs to the evolutionary chain of the reformed base-metal coinage initiated by Diocletian in AD 294. Originally introduced as a substantial billon piece weighing roughly 10 grams with an internal silver content of approximately four to five percent, the denomination colloquially known to modern scholars as the follis was subjected to repetitive fiscal reductions. By the time Licinius was proclaimed Augustus at the Conference of Carnuntum in November AD 308, rampant inflation and state expenditure had already forced the weight standard down to approximately 6.5 grams (struck at 1/48 of a Roman pound), and shortly thereafter to 1/72 of a pound. Between AD 311 and AD 313, as the civil wars of the Tetrarchy accelerated, the weight of the nummus plummeted further, settling at the 1/96 pound standard, translating to a mean weight between 3.0 and 3.5 grams with a diameter shrinking from 24 millimeters down to 18 to 20 millimeters. Concurrently, the trace silver content diminished, typically falling to one or two percent or less. Licinius and his Western colleague Constantine I managed this smaller nummus as the standard fractional transaction coin of the empire. By AD 321, growing ideological and political friction led Licinius to institute an eastern fiscal reform, documented papyrologically in the Rylands Papyri (P. Ryl. IV 607), which officially re-tariffed or halved base currency values. This monetary adjustment found numismatic expression in the appearance of explicit value marks tariffing specific Jovian reverse issues at twelve and a half denarii communes.

Production Technology, Mints, and Control Marks

Production of the Licinian nummus was conducted across a sprawling network of imperial mints utilizing standard Roman blank preparation and striking techniques. Cast planchets were treated with chemical blanching or dipping processes to draw copper away from the surface, leaving an ultra-thin layer of silver that imparted an initial argentiferous sheen to freshly minted coins, though this coating wore off rapidly in daily handling. Die preparation demonstrated high artistic craftsmanship in imperial portraiture, transitioning gradually from heavy, blocky Tetrarchic styles to more streamlined forms. During the early phase of his reign (AD 308 to 316), mutual recognition between Licinius and Constantine meant that Western mints produced nummi in Licinius's name. Licinian issues were struck at Londinium (London), Treveri (Trier), Lugdunum (Lyon), Arelate (Arles), Rome, Ostia, Ticinum, and Aquileia. Licinius directly controlled the central Danubian and Balkan workshops at Siscia, Sirmium, Serdica, and Thessalonica. Following his AD 313 victory over Maximinus Daza, he assumed control over the major eastern facilities: Heraclea, Nicomedia, Cyzicus, Antioch, and Alexandria. Administrative oversight within mints was recorded through elaborate mark systems. Mint signatures in the exergue identified the workshop, such as SIS for Siscia, SMN for Nicomedia, SMK for Cyzicus, or ANT for Antioch. Workshop subdivisions, known as officinae, were denoted using Latin letters (P, S, T, Q) in the West or Greek numerals (A, B, Γ, Δ, ∈, S, Z, H, etc.) in the East, situated either in the reverse fields or within the exergual legend. Supplementary control symbols, including stars, crescents, wreaths, and palm branches, designated successive production runs.

Obverse Iconography and Imperial Representation

The obverse of the copper-alloy nummus served as the paramount platform for imperial propaganda, broadcasting Licinius's legitimacy and status. Early portraits produced between AD 308 and AD 313 adhered rigorously to the Tetrarchic canon established under Diocletian and Galerius. The emperor is rendered with a cubical cranium, deeply furrowed brow, cropped hair, flat cheeks, and a closely trimmed, stubbled beard, emphasizing military resolve, austerity, and administrative discipline rather than personal likeness. From AD 313 onward, eastern mints such as Nicomedia and Antioch developed a distinct regional portrait style: the features remained mature and bearded, but gained increased plasticity and larger, expressive eyes. The standard bust format depicts the emperor facing right, wearing a laurel wreath and dressed in military attire consisting of cuirass and paludamentum (cuirassed or draped and cuirassed). A simpler laureate head right was also widely employed, particularly at Siscia and western installations. Notable obverse variants appeared during special ceremonial occasions and institutional reforms. A consular bust type emerged around AD 318 to 320, showing the emperor facing left in rich ceremonial robes (trabea) and grasping an eagle-tipped sceptre and mappa. In the final phase of the reign, between AD 321 and AD 324, eastern mints shifted to a radiate, draped, and cuirassed bust facing right. This radiate crown served as an unmistakable visual signal of a modified denominational tariff, harking back to the third-century radiate antoninianus.

Reverse Designs and Ideological Themes

The reverse designs of Licinius's nummi provide a clear record of his religious policies and ideological divergence from Constantine. While Constantine increasingly embraced the solar theology of Sol Invictus and later adopted ambiguous or Christian-sympathetic symbols, Licinius remained steadfastly committed to the traditional pagan pantheon, positioning himself under the direct protection of Jupiter. The Jovian theme, expressed primarily through the legend IOVI CONSERVATORI (To Jupiter the Preserver) and its variants, constitutes the vast majority of Licinius's eastern nummus production. The primary design depicts Jupiter standing naked or with a chlamys draped over his left shoulder, holding a sceptre in one hand and supporting a small figure of Victory on a globe in the other. At his feet, an eagle stands holding a laurel wreath in its beak, an emblem of imperial triumph delivered by supreme divine authority. In the reformed issues of AD 321 to 324, this design was amplified by adding a diminutive, bound captive seated on the ground at Jupiter's right or left side, reinforcing the emperor's victory over internal and external enemies. Other notable reverse types occurred across different stages of the reign. Early emissions continued the traditional Tetrarchic GENIO POPVLI ROMANI (The Genius of the Roman People) and GENIO AVGVSTI types. Western mints striking in Licinius's name between AD 313 and AD 317 routinely paired his portrait with SOLI INVICTO COMITI. Architectural and institutional themes also featured, including PROVIDENTIAE AVGG with a multi-turreted campgate, and votive wreaths commemorating the completion of five, ten, or twenty years of rule (VOTIS V, VOT X, VOT XX MVLT XXX).

Inscriptions, Formulas, and Denominational Marks

Obverse legends on the Licinian nummus adhered to established imperial titulature, communicating legitimate military command and sovereign dignity. The most common comprehensive formula was IMP C VAL LICIN LICINIVS P F AVG (Imperator Caesar Valerius Licinianus Licinius Pius Felix Augustus), utilized heavily at eastern mints such as Nicomedia, Cyzicus, and Antioch. Shorter variants included IMP LICINIVS P F AVG, IMP LIC LICINIVS P F AVG, and the streamlined IMP LICINIVS AVG, the latter predominating in central and western mints from around AD 317 onward. On select votive issues, the respectful formula D N LICINI AVGVSTI (Dominus Noster Licinius Augustus) was inscribed around the reverse wreath. Reverse legends were primarily religious, military, or votive. The Jovian invocations varied between IOVI CONSERVATORI, IOVI CONSERVATORI AVGG (referencing both Augusti during collegial harmony), and IOVI CONSERVATORI AVGG NN (referencing Our Augusti). Votive legends recorded fulfilled pledges and anticipated future jubilees, reading VOT XX (Votis Vicennalibus) or VOT XX MVLT XXX (Votis Vicennalibus Multis Tricesimalibus). A distinctive epigraphic feature of the AD 321 to 324 Jovian issue in the eastern territories was the inclusion of field marks such as X over IIΓ or a similar fractional formula in the right field. Modern numismatists interpret this mark as numeral X (ten) plus II and a fractional episemon or gamma (representing one-half), denoting 12 1/2 denarii communes. This explicit numeral confirmed the reduced purchasing power or halved tariff of the circulating nummus in Licinius's jurisdiction.

Typological Sequences and Chronological Phases

The typology of the Licinian copper-alloy nummus can be structured into four consecutive chronological phases reflecting shifting geopolitics: Phase 1 (AD 308 to 313): Following the Carnuntum conference, Licinius governed Pannonia and the Balkan frontier. Nummi from this period weighed roughly 4.5 to 6.5 grams, carrying traditional Tetrarchic types such as GENIO AVGVSTI and early IOVI CONSERVATORI standing types. Western mints acknowledged his senior status following Galerius's death in AD 311. Phase 2 (AD 313 to 316): After defeating Maximinus Daza at the Battle of Tzirallum in AD 313, Licinius unified the entire East under his sole rule. During this phase of concord with Constantine, the nummus was definitively reduced to the 1/96 pound standard (approximately 3.1 to 3.4 grams). A vast shared coinage program was implemented: western workshops struck SOLI INVICTO COMITI for Licinius, while eastern workshops struck IOVI CONSERVATORI for Constantine. Phase 3 (AD 317 to 320): The brief civil war of AD 316 ended with the Treaty of Serdica in March AD 317, wherein Licinius ceded most Balkan territories to Constantine. Licinius concentrated coin production in Thrace (Heraclea) and the Asiatic and Egyptian mints. Emissions included consular bust issues, campgate designs (PROVIDENTIAE AVGG), and standardized IOVI CONSERVATORI pieces where Jupiter was accompanied by his eagle. Phase 4 (AD 321 to 324): Political relations collapsed entirely by AD 321. Reciprocal minting ceased. Licinius introduced the radiate bust type with Jupiter flanked by both eagle and captive, inscribed with the 12 1/2 value mark. Striking continued until his final defeats at Adrianople and Chrysopolis in late AD 324, which concluded his reign and ended autonomous Licinian nummus production.

Hoard Evidence, Circulation, and Post-Reign Fate

The Licinian nummus circulated extensively across the Mediterranean basin and Roman Europe. Large-scale hoard assemblages discovered in Britain (such as the Langtoft and Gloucester hoards), Gaul, Germany, Italy, the Balkans, and the Near East consistently contain significant quantities of Licinius's copper-alloy coins. Prior to AD 317, base-metal coins traveled freely between eastern and western provinces, demonstrating fluid commercial connectivity between administrative spheres. Following the territorial adjustments of AD 317 and the fiscal estrangement of AD 321, circulation patterns became increasingly segregated. The debased radiate nummi of AD 321 to 324 containing the X over IIΓ mark are heavily concentrated in finds across Greece, Asia Minor, the Levant, and Egypt, but are exceedingly scarce in western hoards. This geographic confinement corroborates textual evidence that Constantine's administration rejected or heavily discounted Licinius's devalued currency. After Licinius's surrender and subsequent execution in AD 325, Constantine did not order an immediate complete demonetization of Licinian copper coinage, as the empire depended on existing base-metal volume to sustain day-to-day retail trade. Although instances of deliberate defacement or damnatio memoriae occur on select monumental or medallic issues, ordinary nummi continued to circulate alongside Constantinian Gloria Exercitus and commemorative pieces for over a decade. Over time, through natural attrition, gradual weight reductions in the 330s, and official remeltings, the Licinian nummus was progressively absorbed and replaced by new Constantinian bronze standards.

References

1. Online Coins of the Roman Empire (OCRE). Licinius I
2. The Roman Imperial Coinage, Volume VI: From Diocletian's Reform (A.D. 294) to the Death of Maximinus (A.D. 313). pp. 82-110, 560-644
3. The Roman Imperial Coinage, Volume VII: Constantine and Licinius (A.D. 313-337). pp. 1-35, 160-197, 590-685
4. Roman Coins and Their Values, Volume IV: The Tetrarchies and the Rise of the House of Constantine, AD 284-337. nos. 15150-15386