Maximian: The Bronze Follis and Tetrarchic Currency

Historical Context

In November 284 CE, following the death of Numerian and the overthrow of Carinus, Diocletian assumed control of the Roman Empire. Confronting prolonged military crises across both the Rhine-Danube frontier and the eastern provinces, Diocletian recognized that effective administration and frontier defense exceeded the capacity of a single sovereign. In 285 CE, he elevated his trusted Illyrian colleague Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus to the rank of Caesar, promoting him on 1 April 286 CE to full co-Augustus. Diocletian directed the Eastern provinces, while Maximian took command of the West, governing Italy, Africa, Hispania, and Gaul.

This administrative partnership was formalized in 293 CE with the establishment of the First Tetrarchy, an institutional system of four collegial rulers. Two junior emperors (Caesars) were appointed to support the senior Augusti: Constantius Chlorus in the West and Galerius in the East. To reinforce this hierarchy with divine legitimacy, the rulers adopted patronal identities: Diocletian took the title Iovius (aligning with Jupiter, cosmic architect and supreme arbiter), whereas Maximian adopted Herculius (aligning with Hercules, the heroic protector and active defender).

To arrest decades of monetary collapse and galloping price inflation resulting from the Crisis of the Third Century, Diocletian executed a comprehensive monetary overhaul between 294 and 296 CE. The debased radiate billon antoninianus was phased out in favor of a reformed trimetallic currency system: a refined gold aureus struck at 1/60 of a Roman pound, a pure silver argenteus struck at 1/96 of a pound, and a substantial, silver-surfaced base-metal denomination known in official texts as the nummus. In modern numismatic studies, this heavy cast-flan coin is conventionally designated the follis.

The follis was originally struck at a theoretical standard of 1/32 of a Roman pound (approximately 10.2 grams, generally spanning 9.5 to 10.8 grams, with diameters between 26 and 30 mm). Flans were produced from a copper alloy incorporating approximately 1% to 5% silver. Mint workers subjected the blanks to an acid-pickling blanching bath prior to striking, which depleted copper from the surface layer and created an argentiferous, silvery exterior. Inflationary pressures persisted, prompting the imperial college to issue the Currency Decree of 1 September 301 CE, which doubled the legal tariff of the nummus from 12.5 to 25 denarii communes, accompanied by the Edict on Maximum Prices.

Maximian held office until 1 May 305 CE, when he and Diocletian performed a joint abdication, yielding primary rule to Constantius and Galerius while retaining the status of Senior Augusti. Maximian temporarily reclaimed active imperial authority in Rome between 306 and 308 CE in support of his son Maxentius before abdicating a second time, ultimately dying in Gaul in 310 CE.

Obverse Iconographic Composition

The obverse composition of the Tetrarchic follis is dominated by the heroic portraiture of Maximian Herculius. In alignment with Tetrarchic political doctrine, imperial portraiture abandoned the naturalistic verism of the early empire in favor of a block-like, stylized corporate iconography. This unified visual language utilized compact cranial structures, close-cropped military hairstyles, squared jawlines, and stylized facial furrows to project martial endurance, collegial concord, and iron discipline.

Despite this deliberate uniformity, Maximian's portraiture across imperial mints maintains identifiable individual physical traits. Dies consistently portray him with a thick, muscular neck, a prominent jawline, a cleft chin, and a characteristic pug-like or upturned nose.

On the full follis (nummus), the Augustus is shown wearing a laurel wreath (laureate), with ribbon ties cascading down the neck truncation. The imperial bust appears in several established configurations:

1. Laureate head right, with bare neck truncation.
2. Laureate, cuirassed bust right, displaying anatomical chest plating and a military paludamentum pinned at the shoulder.
3. Laureate, draped, and cuirassed bust right, viewed in profile or slightly from behind.
4. Consular or imperial mantle right, holding an olive branch in the raised right hand and an eagle-tipped sceptre or mappa in the left hand, characteristic of the abdication issues struck for the Senior Augusti.

The radiate crown (corona radiata) was intentionally omitted from the full follis, being restricted to lower-value subsidiary denominations such as the post-reform radiate fraction.

Obverse Epigraphy and Inscriptions

Obverse legends are executed in formal Latin square capital lettering circling the flan border.

Standard Augustus Title (First Tetrarchy, 294-305 CE)

• Original Inscription: IMP C M A MAXIMIANVS P F AVG
• Expanded Latin Transliteration: Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Maximianus Pius Felix Augustus
• English Translation: "Emperor Caesar Marcus Aurelius Maximianus, Pious, Fortunate, Augustus"
• Epigraphic Placement: Clockwise perimeter legend, unbroken or divided above the laurel wreath.

Shortened Imperial Title (Western Mints, c. 295-305 CE)

• Original Inscription: IMP MAXIMIANVS P F AVG (or IMP MAXIMIANVS P AVG)
• Expanded Latin Transliteration: Imperator Maximianus Pius [Felix] Augustus
• English Translation: "Emperor Maximianus, Pious, [Fortunate,] Augustus"
• Epigraphic Placement: Circumferential border legend.

Senior Augustus / Abdication Title (305-307 CE)

• Original Inscription: D N MAXIMIANO BAEATISSIMO SEN AVG (or D N MAXIMIANO BEATISSIMO SEN AVG)
• Expanded Latin Transliteration: Dominus Noster Maximiano Beatissimo Seniori Augusto
• English Translation: "To our Lord Maximian, Most Blessed Senior Augustus"
• Epigraphic Placement: Circular perimeter legend surrounding the mantled bust.

Reverse Iconographic Composition

The reverse imagery of the Tetrarchic follis was deployed systematically across the empire to convey themes of civic stability, economic continuity, and political concord.

GENIO POPVLI ROMANI ("To the Genius of the Roman People")

This composition represents the predominant reverse type of the First Tetrarchy, produced in massive quantities across all active mint facilities. The motif depicts the Genius of the Roman people standing facing, head turned left. He is portrayed nude except for a chlamys draped over his left shoulder. Upon his head rests a modius (the Roman grain-measuring vessel), signifying guaranteed civil subsistence and abundance. In his extended right hand, Genius holds a patera (libation bowl), occasionally shown offering a sacrifice over an illuminated altar; his left arm cradles a horn of plenty (cornucopiae) overflowing with fruits, symbol of territorial fertility.

SACRA MONETA AVGG ET CAESS NOSTR ("The Sacred Coinage of Our Augusti and Caesars")

Introduced around 300-301 CE primarily at central and western mints (including Rome, Ticinum, Aquileia, and Siscia), this reverse type accompanied the legal currency decree. The scene depicts Moneta standing left, dressed in a traditional stola and mantle. In her right hand she holds a pair of balance scales, symbolizing honest weight and official metallic integrity, while supporting a cornucopiae in her left arm.

Specialized Regional and Abdication Types

• Carthage Mint: Features the personification Felix Carthago standing facing, head left, holding fruits in each hand, celebrating North African agricultural wealth under the inscription SALVIS AVGG ET CAESS FEL KART.
• Abdication Type (305-307 CE): Depicts Providentia standing right, extending her right hand toward Quies, who stands facing left holding an olive branch and leaning upon a sceptre, illustrating the motto PROVIDENTIA DEORVM QVIES AVGG (the divine foresight and peaceful retirement of the Senior Augusti).

Reverse Epigraphy and Inscriptions

Reverse legends are inscribed in clear Latin capital characters following the perimeter, frequently segmented by the heads or attributes of the central allegorical figures.

Genius Legend

• Original Inscription: GENIO POPV-LI ROMANI (with divisional variants such as GENIO POPV-L-I ROMANI or GENIO POP-VLI ROMANI)
• Expanded Latin Transliteration: Genio Populi Romani
• English Translation: "To the Genius of the Roman People"
• Epigraphic Placement: Circular margin, interrupted by the modius or head of Genius.

Moneta Legend

• Original Inscription: SACRA MONET AVGG ET CAESS NOSTR (or SACRA MONETA AVGG ET CAESS NOSTR)
• Expanded Latin Transliteration: Sacra Moneta Augustorum et Caesarum Nostrorum
• English Translation: "The Sacred Coinage of our Augusti and Caesars"
• Epigraphic Placement: Circular perimeter legend, broken above Moneta's head.

Abdication Legend

• Original Inscription: PROVIDENTIA DEORVM QVIES AVGG
• Expanded Latin Transliteration: Providentia Deorum Quies Augustorum
• English Translation: "The Foresight of the Gods and the Repose of the Augusti"
• Epigraphic Placement: Circumferential legend encircling the two facing deities.

Typology and Documented Variants

The follis coinage of Maximian Herculius encompasses several distinct chronological and mint series documented across the volumes of The Roman Imperial Coinage:

First Tetrarchy Standard Folles (c. 294-305 CE)

• Diagnostic Features: Full weight module (flans measuring 26-30 mm, weighing 9.5-10.8 g); laureate head or bust right; reverse carrying GENIO POPVLI ROMANI.
• Western Mints:
  • Londinium: Struck without mintmarks in early phases, later bearing exergual letters such as PLN.
  • Treveri: Marked in the exergue with TR, often featuring workshop and status letters in the field (such as A/B or S/F).
  • Aquileia: Marked with exergual signatures such as AQP or AQS, occasionally with an altar in the left field.
• Eastern Mints:
  • Alexandria: Struck c. 298-301 CE bearing field marks such as XXI in the left field and an officina letter over I in the right field, with ALE in the exergue.

The "Sacra Moneta" Series (c. 300-303 CE)

• Diagnostic Features: Laureate head right; reverse showing Moneta with scales and cornucopiae, inscribed SACRA MONET AVGG ET CAESS NOSTR.
• Mint Distribution: Struck predominantly at Aquileia (AQP), Ticinum (PT, ST, TT), Siscia (*SIS), and Rome.

Abdication / Senior Augustus Coinage (305-307 CE)

• Diagnostic Features: Mantled bust of Maximian right, holding an olive branch and mappa; reverse displaying Providentia and Quies with the legend PROVIDENTIA DEORVM QVIES AVGG.
• Mint Distribution: Struck across western and eastern operations, including London (PLN), Trier (PTR), and Alexandria (ALE).

Scholarly Debates and Attribution Limitations

Denomination Nomenclature: Nummus versus Follis

A central debate in late Roman numismatics concerns the authentic name of this reformed bronze denomination. Modern collectors and early catalogues adopted the term follis, drawing from Byzantine metrology (where it designates the large 40-nummi bronze coin introduced by Anastasius I in 498 CE) or late antique Latin, in which follis described a sealed coin bag or purse. Epigraphic discoveries, particularly the Aphrodisias Currency Decree, confirm that contemporary Roman legal administration and everyday commerce referred to this piece as the nummus.

Tariffing and the Aphrodisias Currency Decree

The monetary value of the nummus has formed a major subject of scholarly inquiry. Early twentieth-century researchers hypothesized that the coin was introduced as a 5-denarius or 10-denarius piece. The publication of epigraphic fragments from Aphrodisias demonstrated that prior to 1 September 301 CE, the nummus was tariffed at 12.5 denarii communes. On that date, Diocletian and his co-rulers officially doubled its face value to 25 denarii communes to counteract hoarding and price surges. Continued fiscal pressures soon caused successive weight reductions under subsequent Tetrarchic administrations, lowering the standard to approximately 6.5 grams (1/48 of a pound) in 307 CE and down to 4.5 grams (1/72 of a pound) by 310 CE.

Distinguishing Maximian Herculius from Galerius Maximianus

Attribution challenges frequently arise due to identical imperial names. Both Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus (the Western Augustus) and Galerius Valerius Maximianus (the Eastern Caesar, later Augustus) struck extensive coinages bearing the name MAXIMIANVS. During the First Tetrarchy (293-305 CE), titular conventions provide clear separation: Maximian Herculius is titled AVG (Augustus), whereas Galerius is styled NOB C, NOB CAES, or NOBIL C (Nobilissimus Caesar). However, following the May 305 CE abdication, Galerius became Augustus and frequently carried the obverse legend IMP MAXIMIANVS P F AVG. In this subsequent period, correct attribution depends on mint distribution and portrait style: Maximian Herculius is depicted with an upturned nose, heavy neck, cleft chin, and furrowed brow, while Galerius displays a straight nasal bridge, squarer facial outline, and different stylistic treatment.

Separation of the Radiate Fraction

In older museum records, base-metal coins of Maximian are sometimes broadly catalogued as folles regardless of module or design. Numismatists strictly distinguish the laureate billon nummus (26-30 mm, ~10 g) from the smaller radiate fractions (19-22 mm, ~2.5-3.5 g). These radiate coins, frequently bearing CONCORDIA MILITVM in the eastern mints or votive inscriptions in the west, were struck in unwashed copper alloy and traded as subsidiary denominations. They represent an entirely separate base-metal series and must not be conflated with the full follis.

References

1. Erim, K. T., Reynolds, J., & Crawford, M. (1971). 'Diocletian's Currency Reform. A New Inscription at Aphrodisias.' The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 61, pp. 171-177.. pp. 171-177
2. Sutherland, C. H. V. (1961). 'Denarius and Sestertius in Diocletian's Coinage Reform.' The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 51, pp. 94-97.. pp. 94-97
3. Sutherland, C. H. V. (1967). The Roman Imperial Coinage, Volume VI: From Diocletian's Reform (A.D. 294) to the Death of Maximinus (A.D. 313). London: Spink & Son Ltd.. pp. 1-108, 113-676
4. Carson, R. A. G., & Sutherland, C. H. V. (eds., 1956). Essays in Roman Coinage Presented to Harold Mattingly. Oxford: Oxford University Press.. pp. 174-189
5. Online Coins of the Roman Empire (OCRE). American Numismatic Society / Institute for the Study of the Ancient World.. RIC VI Treveri 152b, 171b; Alexandria 30b, 57b; Aquileia 27b; Londinium 15, 76b
6. The Art Institute of Chicago. Collection Online: Follis (Coin) Portraying Emperor Maximian, Accession 1920.840.. Accession 1920.840 (Artwork ID 141672)