Julia Domna Copper-Alloy As, RIC IV Septimius Severus 877 (as)

Monetary Context and Denominational Role

During the joint and sole reigns of the Severan dynasty, the Roman monetary system maintained the traditional Augustan denominations in nominal structure, but underlying economic pressures induced notable shifts in production priorities. The base-metal as, struck in copper or bronze alloys, historically formed the core daily spending unit of the Roman populace, valued at one-sixteenth of a silver denarius and one-fourth of a brass sestertius. Under Septimius Severus, imperial monetary policy favored the mass production of debased silver denarii to satisfy vast military expenditures, supplemented by heavy sestertii to provide prestige bronze coinage. Consequently, middle bronze denominations, including the as and dupondius, saw restricted production volumes compared to their high-water mark under the Antonines. Despite reduced output, middle bronzes remained essential for minor commercial transactions, local market exchanges, and making change in Italy and the western provinces. Within this framework, issues for imperial women fulfilled both an economic and ideological function. The striking of RIC IV Septimius Severus 877 (as) allowed the imperial regime to circulate the image and religious personifications associated with Julia Domna at an accessible, daily transaction tier. While sestertii carried high-impact political imagery for elite and municipal audiences, the as placed dynastic themes of fertility and domestic welfare directly into standard civilian commerce across urban centers.

Production Standards and Mint Operation

The production of RIC IV Septimius Severus 877 (as) is securely attributed to the imperial mint at Rome, which held exclusive authority for western imperial bronze strikings during the reign of Septimius Severus. Unlike silver denarii, which were occasionally struck at Eastern auxiliary mints such as Laodicea ad Mare during the civil wars of 193 to 202 AD, base-metal coinage remained tightly centralized at the capital. The mint of Rome organized its workshops (officinae) to strike concurrent issues of gold, silver, and aes coinage, with specific engraving teams assigned to the portraiture of the imperial family. In terms of physical properties, the Severan as was struck on cast copper-alloy flans that averaged roughly 24 to 26 millimeters in diameter, with standard weights typically falling between 9.0 and 12.5 grams. Production under Severus exhibits broader weight tolerances than earlier Antonine issues, reflecting less rigid metallurgical control over bronze flan preparation. Flans were routinely hand-cut or cast in open moulds before being struck between engraved iron dies with heavy manual hammer blows. Die alignment for the Rome mint in this period predominantly adhered to a regular or near-regular six o'clock (downward) or twelve o'clock orientation, although minor variations occurred due to manual positioning by mint workmen.

Obverse Iconography and Imperial Portraiture

The obverse of RIC IV Septimius Severus 877 (as) features the draped bust of Julia Domna facing right. Roman numismatic art under the Severans placed considerable emphasis on distinctive female coiffures, and Domna's portraiture represents one of the most recognizable imperial hair arrangements of antiquity. Her hair is rendered in broad, deeply indented parallel horizontal waves that frame the forehead, sweep over the temples, and gather at the back of the neck into a broad, braided coil or horizontal chignon. This elaborate wig-like structure, often described in classical scholarship as the Syrian or Severan coiffure, set aristocratic fashion across the Mediterranean. The bust is elegantly draped at the shoulders and chest, highlighting matronly modesty while conveying aristocratic refinement. Unlike male imperial portraits, which frequently incorporated laurel wreaths, radiate crowns, or military attire, Domna's head is bare, respecting traditional Roman visual conventions for non-reigning female consorts. Die cutters at Rome achieved a portrait of notable plastic depth, capturing individualized facial features, such as a strong jaw and prominent nose, while conforming to an idealized image of serenity, maternal stability, and elevated imperial status.

Reverse Design and Allegorical Meaning

The reverse iconography presents Hilaritas, the divine personification of joyful celebration, standing draped and facing left. In her right hand, Hilaritas holds a long palm branch, with its tip sloping down toward the ground or held gracefully upright along her side. In her left arm, she cradles a cornucopiae laden with fruits, symbolizing the inexhaustible abundance and material blessings guaranteed by the imperial house. The figure is depicted in long, flowing Hellenistic-style drapery that falls in folds around her feet, emphasizing elegance and calm. In Roman state religion and public art, Hilaritas was closely associated with festive religious events, dynastic weddings, childbirth, and seasons of general rejoicing. For Julia Domna, the presentation of Hilaritas was part of a coordinated ideological programme celebrating the continuity of the imperial dynasty through her sons Caracalla and Geta. While some contemporary reverse types depict Hilaritas flanked by small children, RIC IV Septimius Severus 877 (as) employs the solitary personification, distilling the message to its elemental attributes of victory, joy, and agricultural plenty. Flanking the lower fields of the figure are the letters S and C, affirming the traditional senatorial consent required for base-metal coinage.

Epigraphy and Legend Formulae

The legends on RIC IV Septimius Severus 877 (as) are concise, highly legible, and executed in standard capital Roman epigraphy. The obverse reads IVLIA AVGVSTA, curving clockwise around the bust. This streamlined inscription was adopted around 196 AD, when Julia Domna's earlier title IVLIA DOMNA AVG was phased out in favor of the more monumental and universally recognized pairing of personal name and imperial title. The omission of filiation, husband's name, or extensive honorific titles like Mater Castrorum in this issue reflects a deliberate design choice prioritizing visual balance and monumental simplicity. The reverse bears the legend HILARITAS, positioned along the upper and outer perimeter, identifying the personification. In the lower left and right fields sits the formula S C, abbreviating Senatus Consulto ('by decree of the Senate'). This formula remained a fixture on copper and bronze denominations struck at Rome, preserving the constitutional fiction of senatorial oversight over base-metal currency even as supreme administrative authority rested firmly with Septimius Severus and the imperial bureau.

Typology and Chronological Placement

In the standard classification established in Roman Imperial Coinage (RIC), this type is catalogued as RIC IV Septimius Severus 877 under the bronze as denomination, with parallel issues in the sestertius (RIC 855) and dupondius classes. The type was introduced following the elevation of Caracalla to Caesar in 196 AD and the restructuring of Severan court ideology, which coincided with the introduction of the IVLIA AVGVSTA obverse legend. The issue remained in production over an extended period, continuing through the joint reign of Septimius Severus and Caracalla and down to the death of Severus at Eboracum in 211 AD. Because the legends on this type lack dynamic chronological indicators, such as imperial consulships, tribunician power counts, or imperatorial acclamations, precise dating to a single calendar year within the 196 to 211 AD window is difficult. Numismatists rely on stylistic evolution within the portraiture, particularly subtle changes in the volume, waving, and placement of the braided bun, to isolate earlier strikes (circa 196-202 AD) from later issues (circa 205-211 AD). Typologically, the single-figure Hilaritas type without children forms a distinct, persistent sub-group within the vast Severan aes coinage struck for Domna.

Circulation, Wear, and Archaeological Context

Excavation data and hoard evidence demonstrate that Severan middle bronzes circulated widely across Roman Italy, the Rhine-Danube military frontiers, and the western provinces of Gaul and Britain. However, base-metal hoards from the third century AD are dominated numerically by earlier Antonine sestertii and dupondii, which were struck in far larger quantities and retained substantial purchasing power. As a consequence, Severan asses such as RIC 877 appear in lower concentrations in single-loss archaeological contexts, reflecting both their smaller original mintage and the rapid monetary velocity of daily market transactions. Surviving specimens of RIC IV Septimius Severus 877 (as) typically exhibit moderate to heavy surface wear, attesting to prolonged circulation over several decades. During the economic instability and runaway inflation of the mid-third century AD, older bronze denominations remained in active use long after their issuing authorities had passed, often circulating until the systematic debasement of the radiates rendered small-change bronze economically obsolete. Due to centuries of burial in varying soil environments, surviving examples frequently display dark green, brown, or patinated surfaces with occasional edge irregularities characteristic of late imperial bronze manufacture.

References

1. Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum, Vol. V: Pertinax to Elagabalus. pp. 162-163, nos. 784-786
2. RIC IV Septimius Severus 877 (as). Type record ric.4.ss.877_as
3. The Roman Imperial Coinage, Vol. IV, Part I: Pertinax to Geta. p. 209, no. 877