Septimius Severus Sestertius, RIC IV Septimius Severus 672a

Monetary Context and the Severan Transition

The sestertius had long served as the flagship large-format copper-alloy denomination of the Roman Imperial monetary system since the Augustan monetary reforms of the late first century BC. Valued at four asses, two dupondii, or one-quarter of a silver denarius, the sestertius represented substantial purchasing power for everyday market transactions, military administration, and commercial accounting. Under Septimius Severus, who took control of the capital in early AD 193 after the short reigns and violent deaths of Pertinax and Didius Julianus, bronze coinage retained its conventional political and administrative weight. While Severus's early reign is particularly noted in modern numismatic literature for the progressive debasement of the silver denarius to fund military expenditure and legionary pay rises, the brass and bronze denominations struck at Rome remained an indispensable mechanism for base-metal liquidity in Italy and the western provinces. Type RIC IV Septimius Severus 672a belongs to the critical early phase of Severus's reign in AD 194, during which he was actively engaged in the civil war against his eastern rival, Pescennius Niger. The large flan of the sestertius provided a conspicuous public canvas for civic messaging in Rome. By maintaining standard senatorial bronze production alongside intense military campaigning, the regime presented an image of constitutional normality and administrative continuity even as the empire was embroiled in internal conflict.

Production Standards and Mint Operation

The manufacture of RIC IV Septimius Severus 672a was situated exclusively at the central urban mint of Rome. Although Severan silver and provincial bronze were struck at several auxiliary or moving eastern mints during the civil campaigns of AD 193 to 195, large imperial sestertii of standard design and fabric were concentrated at Rome under the formal auspices of the Senate, as signaled by the invariable formula S C (Senatus Consulto). Metallurgically, the Severan sestertius continued the tradition of using orichalcum, a copper-zinc alloy known for its golden appearance when freshly minted, though metallurgical analyses across the late second century indicate an increasing proportion of recycled copper and lead compared to early imperial brass. Production required substantial blank preparation, with cast planchets hammered between hand-engraved iron dies. Sestertii of this period typically fall within a target weight bracket around 20 to 25 grams, with diameters commonly spanning 28 to 32 millimeters, though individual specimens can deviate widely due to contemporary tolerance thresholds and manual flan clipping. Die axes were predominantly aligned at 12 o'clock or 6 o'clock in accordance with regular Rome mint practices. The mint workers (monetarii) operated within an organized workshop (officina) structure, maintaining high output to meet the monetary demands of the capital.

Obverse Iconography and Imperial Image

The obverse of RIC IV Septimius Severus 672a presents a right-facing, laureate head of Septimius Severus. In the early coinage of AD 193 and 194, the portraiture of Severus consciously echoes the features of his adoptive ideological predecessor, Pertinax, as well as the later Antonine rulers, featuring a full, textured beard and curly hair that projected maturity, gravitas, and traditional Roman senatorial values. The laurel wreath (corona triumphalis) encircling his head rests as the primary emblem of imperial authority and military supremacy. Die engravers rendered Severus's countenance with pronounced realism, capturing the determined, martial demeanor of a provincial commander who had risen from North Africa to claim supreme power. The portrait is framed neatly within an outer border of dots, maintaining balanced proportions that showcase the delicate die-cutting traditions of the Rome mint at the dawn of the Severan dynasty.

Reverse Iconography: Victory on the March

The reverse design of this catalogue type features Victory (Victoria), personified as a winged, draped female figure advancing briskly toward the left. In her outstretched right hand she holds an open laurel wreath, symbolizing triumph, while her left arm cradles a palm branch sloped over her shoulder, the ancient emblem of martial endurance and athletic or military victory. Her drapery billows backward, imparting a strong sense of dynamic forward movement that characterizes Roman visual representations of rapid triumph. Victory was an essential motif of Severan legitimation during AD 194, serving as direct political notification of imperial triumphs achieved in the field against Pescennius Niger in the East, notably at Cyzicus, Nicaea, and the final engagement at Issus. The letters S and C are arranged across the fields, flanking the central figure to record senatorial authorization.

Epigraphy and Titulature Analysis

The obverse inscription reads L SEPT SEV PERT AVG IMP III, an abbreviated Latin legend translating to 'Lucius Septimius Severus Pertinax Augustus, Imperator for the third time.' The inclusion of PERT (Pertinax) emphasizes the political fiction of continuity and vengeance for the murdered emperor, adopted by Severus to placate the Roman populace and the urban plebs. The title IMP III records Severus's third acclamation as imperator, a critical chronological marker earned through decisive battlefield victories over eastern competitors early in AD 194. On the reverse, the legend VICT AVG TR P II COS II P P S C encircles the imagery, expanding to 'Victoria Augusti, Tribunicia Potestate II, Consul II, Pater Patriae, Senatus Consulto.' This formula proclaims the personal Victory of the Augustus (VICT AVG) and situates the emission firmly within Severus's second tribunician year (TR P II) and second consulship (COS II). The inclusion of Pater Patriae (P P, Father of the Country) denotes his acceptance of full civic honors, while S C reiterates the traditional senatorial consent required for imperial base-metal coin issues.

Typology and Chronological Classification

Within the typology established by Harold Mattingly and Edward A. Sydenham in The Roman Imperial Coinage, volume IV, type 672a represents a very specific configuration of obverse bust, reverse direction, and imperial titulature struck in AD 194. It is directly related to variant 672b, which exhibits a laureate, draped, and cuirassed bust rather than the plain laureate head found on 672a. The precise chronological framework is anchored by the convergence of TR P II (which began in late 193 or early 194 and ended in late 194) and IMP III (the third imperial salutation, attained following military operations in the East before the fourth salutation, IMP IIII, was assumed later in AD 194). This narrow epigraphic window confirms that RIC IV 672a was produced during mid-AD 194. Neighboring sestertius types of the same calendar year depict alternative personifications such as Mars Pater, Fortuna Redux, and Annona, but the Victory type stood as the most politically urgent message of the emission.

Circulation, Deposition, and Monetary Role

Once released by the Rome mint, sestertii of RIC IV Septimius Severus 672a entered a widespread circulation network dominated by the domestic markets of Italy, Gaul, the Rhineland, and the Danube frontier. Because sestertii possessed considerable intrinsic mass and copper value relative to fractional bronze, they circulated extensively for decades, often remaining in commerce well into the mid-third century AD until the debased radiate antoninianus displaced large bronze denominations. Archaeological site finds and hoards from Britain to the Balkans demonstrate that early Severan sestertii experienced continuous circulation wear, frequently found in heavily smoothed states alongside Antonine and Commodan bronze coins. As an issue celebrating military victory, the coin also served to reassure merchants and civic communities of the stability and martial efficacy of the new regime, facilitating commercial exchange and tax payments across the western territories where imperial aes was the primary transactional currency.

References

1. Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum, Vol. V: Pertinax to Elagabalus. p. 125, nos. 515-517
2. Coinage in the Roman World. pp. 48-65
3. Online Coins of the Roman Empire: RIC IV Septimius Severus 672a. RIC IV Septimius Severus 672a
4. The Roman Imperial Coinage, Vol. IV, Part I: Pertinax to Geta. p. 180, no. 672a