Septimius Severus Bronze Sestertius, RIC IV Septimius Severus 693

Monetary Context and Denominational Role

The sestertius occupied a central position within the imperial Roman monetary system of the late second century AD. Serving as the primary large-format base-metal denomination, the sestertius was tariffed at one quarter of a silver denarius or four copper asses. Under the monetary reforms that traced back to Augustus, sestertii were traditionally struck in orichalcum, a copper-zinc brass alloy prized for its golden appearance and suitability for sharp, deep die relief. By the reign of Septimius Severus, however, fluctuating supplies of zinc and the escalating financial pressures of ongoing civil wars and military expenditure induced progressive modifications to alloy composition, often yielding mixed leaded bronze and orichalcum flans. Denominational circulation required heavy, durable coinages for everyday civilian commercial transactions, urban market activities, and tax accounting within Italy and the western provinces. Because the sestertius was predominantly produced at the central mint in Rome, its widespread use made it an exceptional instrument for disseminating imperial state messages. The issue of RIC IV Septimius Severus 693 in 195 AD occurred during a period of monetary strain and intense ideological competition, wherein the imperial administration employed large flans to project an image of continuity, stability, and supreme military competence.

Production and Mint Organization

RIC IV Septimius Severus 693 was produced exclusively by the imperial mint in Rome, which maintained dedicated officinae for the striking of aes coinage alongside precious-metal production. While eastern provincial and military travelling mints like Alexandria, Antioch, or Laodicea ad Mare struck denarii to pay campaigning legions, base-metal sestertii remained almost entirely concentrated at the capital under the formal nominal authority of the Senate, as evidenced by the S C formula. Base-metal flans were prepared using stone or terracotta multi-cavity moulds, after which the cast blanks were heated and struck between hand-carved steel dies. The physical properties of Severan sestertii in 195 AD generally conformed to a declining weight standard that fluctuated around 20 to 25 grams, with typical diameters ranging between 28 and 31 millimetres, though individual pieces exhibited significant deviations due to manual blank-casting techniques and rapid mint output. Die axis orientation was predominantly regular, adhering to a conventional six o'clock or twelve o'clock alignment characteristic of the central mint's disciplined workshop practices. Surviving specimens demonstrate a high level of engraving competence, reflecting the work of skilled metropolitan die-cutters charged with rendering the official state portraiture and complex reverse figures with balanced compositional symmetry.

Obverse Design and Imperial Portraiture

The obverse of RIC IV Septimius Severus 693 presents a right-facing, laureate head of Septimius Severus. The portraiture belongs to the emperor's early Rome-mint stylistic phase, which deliberately incorporated physical and iconographic characteristics designed to evoke legitimate dynastic lineage and mature philosophical gravitas. Unlike the later Antonine-influenced adoption of curly, luxuriant beard locks that directly cited Marcus Aurelius, the portraits of 195 AD showcase a composed, realistic likeness with neatly defined facial planes, a straight nose, a prominent brow, and a moderately trimmed, wavy beard. The laurel wreath encircling the head is tied at the nape of the neck with its ribbons trailing downward over the neck and shoulder, serving as the definitive numismatic signifier of victorious generalship and supreme civic authority. Die engravers rendered the physiognomy with careful attention to musculature and anatomical realism, emphasizing the ruler's physical strength and determined countenance. The head typically appears undraped on this catalogue type, presenting an austere, dignified image suitable for a military commander claiming imperial pre-eminence through lawful Roman tradition.

Reverse Iconography: Virtus Augusti and Roma

The reverse of the type features an intricate allegorical narrative centered on the imperial virtus. Septimius Severus stands facing left, depicted in complete Roman military garb including a cuirass, tunic, and paludamentum. In his outstretched right hand, the emperor cradles a miniature winged Victory poised atop a terrestrial globe, while his left hand supports an inverted vertical spear, symbolising pacification achieved through victorious arms. Standing to the right and facing left toward the emperor is the personification of Roma, who wears an Attic helmet and flowing drapery, carrying a parazonium at her left side. With her raised right hand, Roma places a triumphal wreath upon the emperor's head. The surrounding legend VIRTVTI AVG, complemented by the letters S C placed within the field or exergue, establishes an explicit conceptual dialogue: the goddess Roma, personifying the collective majesty and divine destiny of the Roman commonwealth, actively legitimizes the emperor's reign in direct recognition of his courage and military prowess. By showing the emperor physically crowned by Roma rather than an allegorical personification such as Victoria or a celestial divinity, the design emphasized constitutional harmony between the imperial general and the eternal capital, validating his claim over any provincial rivals.

Epigraphy and Legend Analysis

The inscriptions on RIC IV Septimius Severus 693 provide precise historical documentation of Severus's titulature in 195 AD. The obverse legend reads L SEPT SEV PERT AVG IMP V, employing standard Latin epigraphic abbreviations. The name Lucius Septimius Severus is accompanied by PERT, referencing Pertinax, the revered emperor whose memory Severus formally avenged and championed to establish his own legitimacy following the scandalous accession and murder of Didius Julianus. The title AVG (Augustus) denotes supreme imperial status, while IMP V records his fifth imperial acclamation as general. This acclamation was earned during the campaigns in Mesopotamia against the kingdoms of Adiabene and Osrhoene, which had sided with Pescennius Niger. On the reverse, the legend reads VIRTVTI AVG, an abbreviation of Virtuti Augusti, rendered in the dative case to signify a formal dedication to the Courage of the Augustus. The formula S C, abbreviating Senatus Consulto ('by decree of the Senate'), maintains the traditional, constitutional fiction of senatorial oversight regarding base-metal coinage, underscoring Severus's ostensible respect for ancestral senatorial prerogatives while simultaneously advertising his indisputable military dominion.

Typology and Chronological Sequence

The chronological assignment of RIC IV Septimius Severus 693 to 195 AD is securely fixed by the combination of the fifth imperial acclamation (IMP V) and the absence of subsequent military or dynastic titles. In late 195 AD, Severus proclaimed his self-adoption into the family of Marcus Aurelius, subsequently assuming the title Parthicus and advancing to his sixth and seventh acclamations in connection with further pacification campaigns in the East. Earlier issues struck in 193 and 194 AD bore lower imperial acclamation counts, whereas issues struck late in 195 or 196 AD introduced IMP VII or IMP VIII along with titles such as Divi Marci Pii Filii. Within the typology of the Rome mint's sestertii, the Virtus-and-Roma motif represents a specific thematic group produced during the interval between the suppression of the eastern revolt of Pescennius Niger and the imminent showdown with Clodius Albinus in Gaul. While RIC 693 designates this exact design configuration and obverse legend, subtle die-cutting variants exist in the literature regarding the exact positioning of S C in the reverse field versus the lower exergue, and the precise arrangement of the reverse figures, though all fall strictly within the conceptual bounds of this single catalogue type.

Circulation Patterns and Archaeological Context

Upon release from the Rome mint, sestertii of RIC IV Septimius Severus 693 entered an active, multi-tiered circulation pool that encompassed Italy and the western European provinces, particularly the frontier regions of the Rhine and Danube where massive legionary forces were garrisoned. Hoard data and stray archaeological finds indicate that late second-century sestertii circulated for several decades alongside earlier issues of the Antonine and Flavian periods. Because base metal experienced slow velocity compared to silver denarii, sestertii often remained in active commercial use until the middle of the third century AD, when progressive currency debasement and soaring inflation led to the widespread wear, cutting, and eventual abandonment of large bronze coins in favor of the radiates. Specimens recovered from archaeological excavations frequently show extensive surface friction, edge knocks, and moderate weight loss attributable to decades of abrasive handling in market stalls and civilian pocket money. Despite such wear, the deep relief characteristic of metropolitan die carving often preserved the essential narrative elements of the emperor being crowned by Roma, ensuring that the coin's political message of military legitimation endured throughout its operational life.

References

1. Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum, Volume V: Pertinax to Elagabalus. pp. 138-142
2. Online Coins of the Roman Empire: RIC IV Septimius Severus 693. ric.4.ss.693
3. The Roman Imperial Coinage, Volume IV, Part I: Pertinax to Geta. p. 182, no. 693