Septimius Severus Bronze Sestertius, RIC IV Septimius Severus 676a

Monetary and Political Context

The issue of RIC IV Septimius Severus 676a in 194 AD occurred during a tumultuous period of transition and consolidation across the Roman Empire. Following the assassination of Commodus in late 192 AD and the brief reigns of Pertinax and Didius Julianus during the Year of the Five Emperors (193 AD), Septimius Severus seized power with the backing of the Danubian legions. Upon taking Rome, he engaged in prolonged civil strife against rival contenders, most notably Pescennius Niger in the eastern provinces. Large bronze denominations, principally the sestertius, functioned not only as primary commercial tokens for daily transactions within the Italian peninsula and the western provinces, but also as high-visibility vehicles for imperial propaganda aimed directly at the Senate and the Roman populace. Through the traditional senatorial authority conveyed by the formula Senatus Consulto (S C), Severus projected administrative continuity, constitutional legitimacy, and personal reverence for Pertinax, whose name he formally adopted. The sestertius standard at this juncture maintained an official tariff of four sestertii to one silver denarius, or one-sixteenth of an aureus, anchoring the base-metal monetary tiers while the precious-metal currency underwent gradual debasement to finance imperial campaigns.

Mint Location and Production Standards

RIC 676a was produced exclusively at the primary imperial mint in Rome. Although Severus opened or adapted auxiliary military mints in the East, such as Alexandria, Antioch, and uncertain Syrian centers, to strike precious-metal coinage for his campaigns, the production of heavy copper-alloy denominations remained strictly centralized in Rome under traditional senatorial sanction. Metallurgically, the sestertius was historically struck in orichalcum, a brass alloy composed of copper and zinc, although analyses of late second-century issues indicate an increasing presence of lead and tin, reflecting secondary metal recycling. Blank flans were individually cast, trimmed, and subsequently struck between hand-held intaglio dies. In accordance with the sestertius standards of the late second century AD, specimens of this specific type typically demonstrate a median weight fluctuating between 22 and 27 grams, with a typical module diameter spanning 29 to 32 millimeters. Die alignment was predominantly upright or slightly off-vertical, following the conventional Roman inverted or medallion-like die axes.

Obverse Iconography

The obverse of RIC 676a features the laureate head of Septimius Severus turned to the right. Rendered in the energetic early Severan style developed at the Rome mint, the portrait represents the emperor with mature, rugged features, a heavy jaw, and his characteristic bifurcated or curled beard, reminiscent of the philosophers and the earlier Antonine monarchs whom he sought to emulate. The laurel wreath sits firmly on his brow, with its ties trailing down the nape of the neck. Unlike the associated sub-variant RIC 676b, which features drapery over the far shoulder, type 676a displays a simple bare neck beneath the laureate head, emphasizing civic sobriety and unadorned imperial authority.

Reverse Iconography and Symbolism

The reverse iconography of RIC 676a presents the personification of Africa standing and facing to the right. She is draped in traditional stola-like attire and wears the exuviae elephantis, a headdress fashioned from the skin and trunk of an elephant, a motif established in Hellenistic and Republican numismatics to symbolize the African continent. She gathers the fold of her robe (sinus), which holds harvested ears of grain, while a lion stands at her feet on the right, turning in the same direction. This composition holds profound dual significance. Biographically, it honors Severus's provincial homeland of Lepcis Magna in Africa Proconsularis, marking the accession of the first African-born emperor to the Roman throne. Politically and economically, the grain-ears directly reference the African annona, the vital seaborne grain supply upon which the city of Rome depended for sustenance. By invoking Africa and her agrarian fertility during the ongoing eastern civil war against Pescennius Niger, the issue assured the capital that food imports remained secure and favored under imperial patronage.

Epigraphy and Legend Structure

The obverse inscription reads continuously clockwise along the peripheral rim: L SEPT SEV PERT AVG IMP IIII, expanding as Lucius Septimius Severus Pertinax Augustus, Imperator Quartum. The presence of PERT highlights his deliberate adoption of the surname Pertinax to align himself with the popular murdered ruler, while IMP IIII provides an exact chronological anchor, recording his fourth salutation as victorious general. The reverse legend is split between the geographic personification and the constitutional sanction: AFRICA occupies the upper field, while S C (Senatus Consulto, 'by decree of the Senate') is placed across the lower field, flanking the personification and the lion. Letter forms follow late second-century imperial epigraphic conventions, with sharp, well-spaced Roman capitals, though minor variations in letter spacing and break points occur across distinct die pairs.

Typology and Chronological Placement

The chronological window for RIC IV Septimius Severus 676a is tightly constrained to the middle of 194 AD. The obverse formula records IMP IIII, an acclamation bestowed following Severan military victories over the forces of Pescennius Niger in Asia Minor, particularly around the Cilician Gates and Issus. This title was replaced later in 194 AD by IMP V and subsequent acclamations as the eastern campaign pressed into Mesopotamia, limiting the production of the IMP IIII series to several months. Within the typology established by Harold Mattingly and Edward Sydenham in Roman Imperial Coinage, type 676 is subdivided into 676a (head laureate right) and 676b (head laureate right with drapery on the left shoulder). The type also corresponds to Cohen 27 and Banti 12. Contemporary reverse companions struck at Rome in the same bronzes included representations of Annona, Mars Victor, and Minerva, forming a cohesive thematic program balancing military victory with civil provision.

Circulation Patterns and Archaeological Evidence

Sestertii of the early Severan era circulated widely across Italy, the Danubian provinces, Gaul, and Roman Britain, remaining in everyday commercial use for several decades after their initial striking. Because bronze coinage suffered wear over prolonged lifespans, surviving specimens of RIC 676a often display moderate to heavy circulation wear, with peripheral legends occasionally clipped or worn flat. Find-spot data and hoard evidence from the western provinces show that second-century bronze continued to dominate circulation pools well into the third century AD, until hyperinflation and the systematic demonetization of the sestertius under Gallienus and Aurelian led to widespread withdrawal and hoarding. Because of the brief duration of the IMP IIII title in 194 AD, RIC 676a is significantly scarcer in excavation contexts than later, extended sestertius issues of Severus bearing his long-lived titles of 195 to 201 AD.

References

1. I grandi bronzi imperiali: Volume IV-1, Da Pertinax a Caracalla. p. 54, no. 12
2. Description historique des monnaies frappees sous l'Empire romain, Tome IV. p. 7, no. 27
3. Online Coins of the Roman Empire: RIC IV Septimius Severus 676a. ric.4.ss.676a
4. The Roman Imperial Coinage, Vol. IV, Part I: Pertinax to Geta. p. 180, no. 676a