Titus Orichalcum Dupondius

Monetary Context and Denominational Function

Within the reformed imperial currency structure inherited from Augustus and modified under Nero, the dupondius served as the intermediate brass denomination, intermediate between the heavy sestertius and the copper as. Valued at two asses, eight dupondii constituted one silver denarius, and two dupondii equaled one sestertius. Unlike the as, which was struck in relatively pure reddish copper, the dupondius was manufactured from orichalcum, a golden-toned copper-zinc alloy known as brass. Because circulating coins suffered surface patination and wear that obscured the subtle color distinction between brass and copper, imperial authorities under Nero introduced the radiate crown as the standard visual identifier for the dupondius, while the as typically retained a bare or laureate head. Under the Flavians, this convention was rigorously applied. Titus was elevated to Caesar in AD 69 and received coin-striking honors alongside his father from AD 71 onward. The production of dupondii bearing his name and bust fulfilled pressing civic needs for intermediate change, facilitating market purchases, small-scale tax payments, and soldiers' daily subsistence spending. The denomination's substantial production underscores the deliberate Flavian policy of stabilizing domestic commerce following the destructive monetary disruptions of the civil wars of AD 68 to 69.

Mints and Metrological Standards

The primary center for the production of Titus's dupondii was the imperial mint of Rome, which operated multiple administrative divisions or officinae dedicated to base-metal coinage. During the early 70s AD, massive auxiliary strikings were also conducted at western provincial mints, most notably Lugdunum (modern Lyon). The attribution of western issues to Lugdunum, as cataloged by Harold Mattingly and refined by Ian Carradice and Ted Buttrey, is supported by stylistic signatures such as the distinctive small globe beneath the imperial bust, flatter fabric, and regional hoard distributions. The theoretical target weight for the Flavian dupondius hovered between 12.0 and 13.5 grams, with typical diameters ranging between 26 and 29 millimeters. However, striking tolerances were relatively loose, as base-metal coins were accepted largely as token currency overvalued against their intrinsic metallic content. Metallurgical analyses confirm that the orichalcum used during Titus's reign generally contained between 12 and 18 percent zinc, though declining zinc levels across subsequent decades reflected increasing reliance on recycled brass scrap in the melting crucible.

Obverse Iconography and Radiate Portraiture

The obverse of the dupondius of Titus is defined by his radiate head, facing either right or, somewhat less frequently, left. While bare or laureate heads occasionally appear on special or misattributed base-metal pieces, the radiate crown remained the defining attribute of the denomination. Under Vespasian's reign, the portraiture of Titus reflects a balance between dynastic conformity and distinct individual traits. Early portraits from AD 71 to 73 exhibit a vigorous, fleshy neck and rounded jawline reminiscent of his father's features, intended to project Flavian solidarity and physical endurance. Over time, particularly during his sole reign as Augustus from AD 79 to 81, portrait dies attained a refined sculptural quality. Titus is portrayed with a broader cranium, heavy brow, and curling hair crowned by sharply rendered triangular solar rays. The drapery, when present, is usually restricted to a small aegis or light cloak at the base of the neck, though the vast majority of Rome mint dies feature an entirely unadorned truncation.

Reverse Iconography and Themes

The reverse repertoire of Titus's dupondii mirrors the broader ideological program of the Flavian administration. Standard personifications of civic virtues predominate, emphasizing stability, abundance, and imperial beneficence. Aequitas appears holding scales and a rod, symbolizing commercial fairness and imperial integrity; Felicitas holds a caduceus and cornucopia, guaranteeing the empire's happiness and fruitful abundance; Pax holds an olive branch and caduceus, celebrating the end of civil conflict; and Ceres or Annona highlights grain provisions for the urban plebs. In addition to civic allegories, military triumphs figure prominently. Issues commemorating the Jewish War (Judaea Capta) appear across the denomination, depicting mourning captives seated beneath palm trees alongside captured armor or trophies, directly proclaiming Titus's battlefield victories in the East. Architectural types, while rarer on the dupondius than on the sestertius, are also known, including schematic representations of the newly dedicated Flavian Amphitheater and triumphal arches. Virtually all reverse fields display the prominent senatorial sanction S C (Senatus Consulto), asserting constitutional continuity alongside imperial authority.

Inscriptions and Epigraphy

Epigraphic patterns on Titus's dupondii divide cleanly into two principal phases: his tenure as Caesar (AD 71-79) and his tenure as Augustus (AD 79-81). As Caesar under Vespasian, typical obverse legends read T CAESAR IMP PONT or T CAESAR IMP VESPASIAN, followed by consular and tribunician iterations, such as COS III or COS IIII CENS. Upon his accession to the supreme title in AD 79, the legend structure changed fundamentally to establish his imperial supremacy, adopting formulas such as IMP T CAES VESP AVG P M TR P COS VII or COS VIII. Reverse inscriptions generally identify the personified divinity (AEQVITAS AVGVST, FELICITAS PVBLICA, PAX AVGVST, SECVRITAS AVGVSTI) or proclaim victory through IVDAEA CAPTA. The senatorial formula S C appears either flanking the reverse figure in the left and right fields or seated in the lower exergue. The lettering is rendered in crisp Roman monumental capitals, with neat, square letterforms and standard ligatures characteristic of the Flavian urban mint.

Typology and Chronological Evolution

The chronological evolution of Titus's dupondii is tracked through the progression of his consulships and tribunician iterations. The earliest series, initiated in AD 71 to 72 (RIC II.1 Vespasian 290-310), commemorated his first significant sharing in imperial administration and the suppression of the Jewish revolt. Heavy production continued between AD 74 and 76 during his joint censorship with Vespasian, marked on the coins by CENS or CENSOR. An important milestone occurred in AD 77 to 78, when the western branch mint at Lugdunum ceased extensive bronze operations, concentrating subsequent output almost exclusively in Rome. Upon Vespasian's death on June 24, AD 79, Titus's titular heading assumed the imperial P M (Pontifex Maximus). His sole reign (AD 79-81) saw two major consular terms: his seventh consulship in AD 79 and eighth consulship in AD 80. The catastrophic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79 and the great fire in Rome in AD 80 prompted targeted relief coinages that reaffirmed divine protection and civil reassurance through reverse types such as Roma seated and Salus. His sudden death in September AD 81 concluded the series, after which his brother Domitian assumed production and subsequently minted posthumous consecration issues.

Circulation, Hoards, and Archaeological Context

Due to their base-metal composition and high utility in daily market trade, dupondii of Titus circulated vigorously throughout the western Roman world, particularly in Italy, Gaul, Britain, and along the Rhine-Danube military frontiers. Archaeological recovery in excavations of military camps, urban fora, and rural villas frequently yields heavily worn specimens, indicating prolonged circulation lasting several decades into the second century AD, well into the Antonine period. Unlike gold and silver coins, which were frequently hoarded during political emergencies, bronze and brass dupondii were predominantly deposited in site losses or mixed civic hoards. Over decades of circulation, chemical leeching in damp soils often altered the yellow orichalcum into green or brown patinated bronze, obscuring the original visual contrast between brass dupondii and copper asses for modern excavators. Nonetheless, the durable radiate crown enabled continuous recognition of denominational value throughout the coin's commercial lifespan.

References

1. Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum, Volume II: Vespasian to Domitian. pp. 115-180, 260-290
2. Orichalcum and Related Ancient Alloys: Origin, Composition and Manufacture with Special Reference to the Coinage of the Roman Empire. pp. 82-105
3. The Roman Imperial Coinage, Volume II, Part 1: From AD 69 to AD 96 (Vespasian to Domitian). pp. 110-145, 195-225
4. Roman Coins. pp. 175-195