Trajan Silver Denarius, RIC II Trajan 355

Monetary Context and Imperial Policy

Under Trajan, the Roman imperial denarius served as the backbone of daily state expenditures, legionary wages, and inter-provincial commerce. Trajan oversaw significant fiscal reforms earlier in his reign, notably after the conclusion of the Dacian Wars, which flooded the treasury with gold and silver bullion. This influx allowed the empire to carry out extensive recoinage programs, melting down worn pre-Neronian Republican and early Julio-Claudian silver denarii. By the period of AD 114 to 117, the denarius was minted at an established standard averaging approximately 3.2 to 3.4 grams, with an alloy containing roughly eighty percent silver. The issue of RIC II Trajan 355 coincided with the vast logistical preparation and execution of Trajan's campaigns in Armenia and Mesopotamia against the Parthian Empire. Financing these expeditions required substantial coin production, ensuring that denarii carried not only commercial utility but also immediate ideological messaging to the military and civilian populations across Roman territories.

Mint Organization and Production

RIC II Trajan 355 was produced exclusively at the central imperial mint in Rome. During this era, the Rome mint was organized into specialized officinae that operated under the supervision of equestrian procurators. The mint coordinated the production of precious-metal coinage with remarkable stylistic uniformity, technical discipline, and die control. Flans were cast in individual molds or shaped from carefully measured silver blanks, then heated and hand-struck between engraved bronze or iron dies. The die-axis alignment for this issue is predominantly regular, adhering to the standard imperial practice of striking at either a six o'clock or twelve o'clock orientation. The sheer scale of output during the late reign of Trajan indicates intensive mint activity, with numerous die pairs cut by experienced celators who maintained crisp anatomical modeling and lettering throughout the issue's emission sequence.

Obverse Portraiture and Style

The obverse of RIC II Trajan 355 presents a mature, right-facing portrait of Trajan that is both laureate and draped. Stylistically, this representation corresponds to the later portrait phases of Trajan's principate, often described in modern typology as the Decennalia or late campaign type. The emperor is depicted with his characteristic straight-cut fringe of hair across the forehead, strong jawline, firm aquiline nose, and focused gaze, projecting gravitas and stern determination. The laurel wreath encircles his head with its ties extending downward across the nape of his neck, while subtle drapery over the far shoulder softens the transition to the bust line. Die variations exhibit slight shifts in portrait relief and drapery rendering, reflecting the hands of different master engravers working within the Rome mint, yet all variations preserve the official court aesthetic established for Trajan's final years.

Reverse Iconography and Symbolism

The reverse of the denarius displays Virtus, the Roman personification of martial prowess, valor, and military discipline. Virtus is depicted helmeted and in full military dress, standing toward the right with her left foot placed upon a fallen helmet, symbolizing victory and dominion over the instruments of combat. In her right hand, she holds a vertical spear reversed, a classical pose indicating successful engagement or quiescent strength, while her left hand cradles an upright parazonium, the triangular short sword associated with high military command and moral authority. Unlike depictions of Roma or Minerva, Virtus embodies active field generalship and the courageous character demanded of the Roman soldier. This imagery directly resonated with the Roman populace and legions during the Parthian offensive, connecting the personal valor of Trajan to the divine protection and enduring superiority of Roman arms.

Epigraphic Analysis and Titulature

The inscriptions on RIC II Trajan 355 provide precise epigraphic evidence for dating and ideological intent. The obverse legend reads IMP CAES NER TRAIANO OPTIMO AVG GER DAC, representing an abbreviation of Imperatori Caesari Nervae Traiano Optimo Augusto Germanico Dacico in the dative case. The use of the dative reflects a dedicatory formula by the Senate and Roman people to their princeps. The inclusion of OPTIMO is crucial; the Senate officially granted Trajan the title Optimus (The Best) in the autumn of AD 114. The reverse legend continues this grammatical dedication with P M TR P COS VI P P S P Q R, expanding to Pontifici Maximo, Tribunicia Potestate, Consuli Sextum, Patri Patriae, Senatus Populusque Romanus. The designation COS VI indicates Trajan's sixth consulship, which he entered in AD 112, while the omission of the title Parthicus suggests that the core emission of this type commenced prior to the formal adoption of that eastern victory epithet in early AD 116.

Typology and Chronological Placement

Within the typology of the Roman Imperial Coinage, RIC II Trajan 355 belongs to the Optimo series struck between AD 114 and 117. In Bernhard Woytek's comprehensive monograph on Trajanic coinage, Moneta Imperii Romani 14, this Virtus reverse type is categorized under the emissions accompanying the outbreak of the Parthian War (MIR 503v and closely related varieties). Chronologically, the type succeeds the extensive issues commemorating the Dacian conquest and the construction of Trajan's Forum. The type stands out as a distinct variety within the wider series of standing Virtus issues because of the specific combination of the right-facing draped bust, the dative obverse legend with OPTIMO, and the reverse stance featuring the foot upon a helmet. The issue continued until the closing months of Trajan's reign or until superseded by legends that fully incorporated Parthicus into the standard obverse formula.

Circulation Patterns and Archaeological Evidence

Denarii of this type entered vigorous circulation throughout the Roman Empire, carried across provinces by troop movements and the payment of administrative expenses. Hoard evidence from Britain, Gaul, the Rhine frontier, the Danubian limes, and the Levant demonstrates that denarii of Trajan's sixth consulship remained in active circulation for decades. Many specimens continued to circulate well into the Antonine and Severan periods, as evidenced by their presence in third-century hoards alongside more debased issues. Because Trajan's silver standard of approximately eighty percent was substantially purer than the denarii struck under Septimius Severus and his successors, Trajanic denarii eventually suffered from preferential hoarding and selective melting under Gresham's Law. Nevertheless, stray finds and site assemblages from military forts across the northern frontier confirm that RIC II Trajan 355 fulfilled a prolonged and effective monetary role.

References

1. The Metallurgy of Roman Silver Coinage: From the Reform of Nero to the Reform of Trajan. pp. 498-508
2. Online Coins of the Roman Empire: RIC II Trajan 355. ric.2.tr.355
3. The Roman Imperial Coinage, Vol. II: Vespasian to Hadrian. p. 268, no. 355
4. Die Reichsprägung des Kaisers Traianus (98-117). Moneta Imperii Romani 14. pp. 450-455