Volusian Bronze Sestertius, RIC IV Volusian 252A

Monetary Context and the Third-Century Sestertius

During the mid-third century AD, the Roman monetary framework operated in a state of deepening structural crisis. The reign of Trebonianus Gallus and Volusian coincided with massive military expenditures on the Danube and eastern frontiers, compounded by the internal devastation of the Cyprian plague. These socio-economic shocks accelerated the debasement of the radiate billon antoninianus, which increasingly crowded out traditional denominations. Within this environment, the sestertius, historically the premier base-metal coin of the early and high empire, was struck in diminishing numbers. Although formally struck under senatorial oversight as indicated by the SC formula, imperial authorities governed the metal supplies and nominal output at the Rome mint. RIC IV Volusian 252A belongs to one of the final substantial generations of regular imperial sestertii. By this date, the alloy used for sestertii had drifted from classical golden orichalcum (brass) toward more irregular copper alloys containing erratic mixtures of tin and lead. Weight standards also slipped noticeably; while first- and second-century sestertii averaged 25 to 28 grams, mid-third-century issues routinely fluctuated between 15 and 22 grams. Despite these technical deficiencies, the denomination was retained to satisfy urban everyday cash transactions and reinforce traditional imperial administrative continuity in Rome.

Mint Organization and Production at Rome

RIC IV Volusian 252A was produced exclusively at the primary imperial mint in the city of Rome. Modern numismatic scholarship identifies multiple distinct workshops or officinae operating simultaneously at Rome under Gallus and Volusian, sharing die-engraving styles and standardized administrative practices across both rulers. The production of large bronze flans required heavy casting followed by striking on heated metal blanks, though mid-third-century dies were frequently executed with somewhat lower relief than early Severan predecessors. Die alignment across this series is typically vertical or nearly vertical, adhering to the standard imperial practice of six o clock or twelve o clock die axes, though minor variations occur due to manual striking conditions. The reverse dies for RIC IV Volusian 252A were intricately carved to render fine architectural detail, including column capitals, the pediment arch, and the small figure of the seated goddess. The mechanical quality of surviving specimens exhibits signs of high-volume, hurried output, with occasional cracked flans, off-center strikes, and flan beveling resulting from uneven blank preparation. The Rome mint was tasked with parallel production of identical reverse designs across multiple denominations, including sestertii, antoniniani, and silver quinarii, indicating a coordinated propaganda program across all available metal media.

Obverse Iconography and Imperial Portraiture

The obverse of RIC IV Volusian 252A displays the right-facing portrait bust of Volusian as Augustus. The ruler is shown wearing the laurel wreath, the time-honored symbol of imperial power and victorious generalship, which differentiates the sestertius denomination from the radiate crown reserved for the double sestertius and the antoninianus. The bust is systematically rendered as draped and cuirassed, visible at the truncation and shoulder, showing the military cuirass partially covered by the imperial cloak or paludamentum fastened with a fibula. Stylistically, the portrait conforms to the transitional artistic mode of the mid-third century, blending lingering Severan realism with the simplified, harder linear contours of the Soldier Emperors. The facial features depict Volusian as a young adult, featuring clean-shaven cheeks or slight downy stubble, an elongated nose, and cropped hair held beneath the wreath ties that trail over the nape of the neck. The portraiture was designed to visually emphasize stability, filial succession, and imperial legitimacy alongside his father Trebonianus Gallus. Die variations show minor differences in the length and curvature of the wreath ties, the volume of drapery folds, and the prominence of the cuirass pteruges, reflecting the hands of different engravers within the Roman mint workshops.

Reverse Iconography: The Temple of Juno Martialis

The reverse of RIC IV Volusian 252A carries a rare and distinctive architectural representation: a circular tetrastyle temple enshrining Juno Martialis. The temple is depicted from an elevated frontal perspective, displaying four slender columns supporting an arched or domed roof topped with decorative antefixes or acroteria. In the interior space between the central columns, the cult statue of Juno Martialis is seated facing forward. The goddess holds ritual attributes, typically interpreted in numismatic literature as a patera or ears of corn in one hand and a scepter or shears in the other. At her side sits her sacred animal, the peacock, rendered in miniature profile. Flanking the temple in the lower fields are the letters S and C, denoting Senatus Consulto. Juno Martialis represents a specialized martial aspect of the queen of heaven, an epithet scarcely found outside the coinage of Trebonianus Gallus and Volusian. Some historians associate this sudden devotion with prayers to ward off the catastrophic plague of Cyprian, invoking Juno in her role as a protector of life and health against divine wrath, or connecting her directly to Italian military levies. The depiction is widely regarded as a representation of a real monopteros or rotunda, possibly erected or restored in Rome during this brief period.

Epigraphic Style and Epigraphical Analysis

The legends on RIC IV Volusian 252A are engraved in clear, compact imperial capitals that run continuously along the circular inner border of dots. The obverse legend reads IMP CAE C VIB VOLVSIANO AVG, an abbreviation for Imperator Caesar Caius Vibius Volusianus Augustus. This inscription articulates his legal standing as an Augustus sharing full tribunician and military command, displaying his family gentile name Vibius inherited from his father. The epigraphy exhibits typical mid-third-century forms, characterized by slightly compressed lettering, triangular serifs, and the standard interchangeability of V for U. The reverse legend reads IVNONI MARTIALI, followed by S C placed across the fields. Cast in the dative case, the legend serves as a formal dedication: 'To Juno Martialis.' This dedication identifies the coin design not merely as an architectural illustration, but as an official act of state piety directed to the deity on behalf of the emperors and the Roman people. The letters S C, signifying Senatus Consulto, affirm the constitutional formula of base-metal coin production in Rome, maintaining the fiction of senatorial authority over bronze currency even as military autocracy dominated practical governance.

Typology, Chronological Sequence, and Variants

RIC IV Volusian 252A was introduced after Volusian was elevated from Caesar to Augustus in late AD 251, following the death of Hostilian. The issue remained in production across AD 252 and into AD 253, concluding abruptly with the overthrow and deaths of Gallus and Volusian near Interamna. The type forms an integral part of a coordinated emission that appeared across multiple metals, including aurei, silver antoniniani, and bronze denominations. Within the RIC classification system, this type is catalogued specifically by the obverse bust type: laureate, draped, and cuirassed facing right. It is closely related to companion varieties featuring alternative bust treatments, such as laureate and draped without the cuirass, catalogued under distinct references. Minor die varieties within RIC 252A concern the rendering of the temple superstructure, which varies between an arched pediment and a hemispherical dome, and subtle differences in the seated posture and attributes of Juno. Because this issue is undated by tribunician power or consulship, its placement within the AD 251 to 253 bracket relies on hoard evidence, die links with dated reverse types, and the stylistic evolution of Volusian portraiture from early youthful depictions to broader, more mature profiles.

Circulation Patterns, Hoarding, and Survival

By the mid-250s AD, Roman bronze currency was predominantly circulating within Italy and the western provinces, where municipal and imperial brass coins still functioned as small change for retail trade. Sestertii of Volusian such as RIC 252A did not experience long or widespread circulation compared to their second-century counterparts. The galloping inflation of the mid-third century rapidly reduced the purchasing power of bronze pieces, causing them to be hoarded alongside older, heavier brass coins or remelted for secondary metal use. Archaeological finds in the northwestern provinces, including Gaul and Britain, occasionally reveal specimens in mixed bronze hoards that closed under the Gallic Empire, though their presence is consistently sparse compared to the vast quantities of radiates. Because Volusian reign lasted less than two years, the absolute volume of sestertii struck was modest, and the Juno Martialis reverse type remains relatively scarce among surviving museum and private collections. Extant specimens frequently exhibit uneven wear patterns, porous surfaces resulting from unstable soil chemistry on debased alloys, and weak strikes along the outer perimeter where the dies failed to fill the irregular cast flans completely.

References

1. I Grandi Bronzi Imperiali: Volusiano. Vol. V, no. 12
2. Online Coins of the Roman Empire: RIC IV Volusian 252A. RIC IV Volusian 252A
3. The Roman Imperial Coinage, Vol. IV, Part III: Gordian III to Uranius Antoninus. pp. 179-184
4. Roman Coins and Their Values, Volume III: The Third Century Crisis and Recovery, AD 235-285. no. 9789