Bahram II Gold Dinar: Typology, Iconography, and Epigraphy

Historical Context

Bahram II (Middle Persian: Warahrān or Wahrām II) ruled the Sasanian Empire from ca. 274/276 to 293 CE, succeeding his father Bahram I. His reign marked an era of consolidation for Zoroastrian state orthodoxy under the influential chief priest Kartir (Kirdēr), who was elevated to unprecedented rank as chief judge and overseer of the imperial religious hierarchy. Politically, Bahram II confronted both internal and external challenges, including dynastic insurrections in the eastern realms led by his brother Hormizd (the Kushanshah) and an invasion by Roman forces under Emperor Carus in 283 CE, whose campaign halted following the emperor's sudden demise near Ctesiphon.

Within early Sasanian monetary administration, the gold dinar (dēnār, pl. dēnārān, adapted from the Roman denarius aureus) functioned very differently from the vast mass of circulating silver drachms (drahm). Gold issues were strike-limited, prestige emissions intended for imperial accession donatives, diplomatic presentation, and elite largesse. While earlier monarchs predominantly appeared alone, Bahram II introduced radical iconographic innovations, including jugate dynastic family portraiture celebrating his queen and royal heir or divine protectors.

Obverse: Iconographic Composition

Early Sasanian gold dinars were struck on an inherited Attic standard, typically yielding weights between 7.15 g and 7.48 g and flan diameters between 19 mm and 22 mm, with a normal die-axis oriented to 3 o'clock. Across the reign of Bahram II, two primary obverse compositions are documented in standard corpora:

1. Solitary Monarchic Portrait (SNS Type I / Göbl Type I): A right-facing draped bust of the king, presenting a neatly groomed beard tied with royal ribbons, a curled mustache, and voluminous globes of crimped hair falling behind the neck. Bahram II's diagnostic crown consists of a close-fitting skullcap adorned with outward-curving wings flanking a celestial globe (korymbos) formed of gathered fabric or precious metal, with diadem ribbons trailing behind. The outward-curving wings are the primary symbolic attribute of Verethragna, the Zoroastrian divinity of victory, directly expressing the sovereign's regnal name.

2. Dynastic Family Group Portrait (SNS Type VII / Göbl Type VII and X): Jugate right-facing busts of Bahram II and his consort (traditionally identified as Queen Shapurdukhtak), confronted vis-à-vis with a smaller left-facing bust. The king wears his characteristic winged crown. The queen wears an elaborate high bonnet terminating in an animal protome (variously read on individual dies as a boar, bird of prey, or horse). The confronted small figure also wears an animal-headed cap and extends both hands upward to present an investiture wreath or tied diadem to the monarch.

Obverse: Epigraphy and Inscriptions

The obverse legends of Bahram II are engraved in Inscriptional Pahlavi, the unjoined lapidary script used for Middle Persian (Pārsīk) official documents. In imperial numismatics, the standard monumental formula appears as follows:

• Monumental Titulature: mzdysn bgy wrhrʾn MLKAn MLKA ʾyrʾn W ʾnyrʾn MNW ctry MN yzdʾn
• Aramaic Heterograms (Huzwārišn): MLKAn MLKA / MRKAn MRKA (for šāhān šāh, "King of Kings"), W (for ud, "and"), MNW (for kē, "who"), MN (for az, "from").
• English Translation: "The Mazda-worshipping Lord Bahram, King of Kings of Iran and Non-Iran, whose lineage is from the gods."

On physical gold dies, however, complete and correct inscriptions are rare. Die cutters operating on smaller gold flans frequently shortened the legend or engraved devolved strokes. For example, the well-preserved dinar in the British Museum (registration no. 1888,1208.490) records only an abbreviated opening invocation reading mzd.... followed by blundered pseudo-lettering along the circular perimeter. Numismatic analysis requires distinguishing between theoretical monumental reconstructions and actual die engravings.

Reverse: Iconographic Composition

The reverse field is organized around the sacred Zoroastrian fire (ādur or ātaxsh), set within a stepped fire altar consisting of a tiered plinth, an altar shaft or column adorned with hanging royal ribbons, and a stepped capital supporting the burning embers:

1. Altar with Flanking Attendants (SNS Type I/1): Two full-length attendants stand flanking the altar pillar, each holding a grounded staff or scepter. The figure to the left wears Bahram II's winged crown, while the figure to the right wears a mural crown. Both face either toward the altar flame or turn outward in ceremonial posture.

2. Investiture Scene at the Altar (SNS Type VII/5): The king stands to the left of the altar shaft in royal garb, raising his right hand in ritual adoration or acceptance. Flanking to the right stands a female figure wearing an animal-protome cap (interpreted as the queen or the water goddess Anahita), who extends an investiture ring tied with ribbons toward the monarch across the sacred flame. On high-relief specimens such as British Museum 1888,1208.490, supplementary dynastic symbols flank the flames, including an investiture knot to the left and a royal crest (tamgha) to the right.

Reverse: Epigraphy and Inscriptions

The reverse inscription identifies the royal dynastic fire established for the sovereign, positioned vertically in the fields flanking the central altar pillar:

• Field Placement: Left vertical field and right vertical field, reading downward.
• Script: Inscriptional Pahlavi.
• Language: Middle Persian (Pārsīk).
• Heterograms: NWRA (Middle Persian ādur, "fire"), ZY (relative/ezafe particle ī).
• Standard Formula: Left field: NWRA ZY (or nwrʾ zy); Right field: wrhrʾn (or wlhlʾn).
• English Translation: "Fire of Bahram."

On gold dinar emissions, these characters are occasionally transposed, contracted, or partially blundered. On certain regional issues, single control characters or mint-related letters appear in the lower field or beneath the plinth, reflecting specific workshop practices.

Typology and Documented Variants

The primary classification for Bahram II's coinage is established in Sylloge Nummorum Sasanidarum (SNS) Band II, updating the foundational framework of Robert Göbl (1971). Key documented comparison specimens include:

These comparison specimens demonstrate the coexistence of solitary monarchic types alongside complex dynastic groups in gold.

Scholarly Debates and Attribution Limitations

Several aspects of Bahram II's gold dinar series remain subjects of active numismatic discussion:

1. Identity of the Confronted Figure: Early numismatists, including Robert Göbl and Furdoonjee Paruck, identified the small facing figure holding an investiture wreath as the crown prince, Bahram III (Sakanshah). However, Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis demonstrated that according to strict Sasanian court protocol and rock relief conventions, mortal princes did not bestow diadem rings upon the King of Kings. Curtis argued that the figure is more plausibly interpreted as a divinity or the personification of the royal glory (xwarrah), leaving the dynastic identity open to scholarly debate.

2. Identification of Reverse Attendants: On Type I reverse dies, the identities of the two figures flanking the fire altar remain uncertain. While the left attendant routinely wears the sovereign's winged crown, the right figure wears a mural crown. Competing hypotheses identify the pair as the king and the high priest Kartir, the king and his queen, or the king accompanied by a divine guardian such as Ohrmazd or Anahita.

3. Mint Attributions and Geographic Locations: Unlike late Sasanian drachms that bear explicit mint abbreviations, early Sasanian gold dinars carry no formal geographic signatures. Modern attributions associating Style A with Ctesiphon, Style G with Marw, or Style I with Herat (HWPY) represent stylistic groupings and numismatic working hypotheses rather than indisputable strike locations.

References

1. Sylloge Nummorum Sasanidarum Paris–Berlin–Wien, Band II: Ohrmazd I.–Ohrmazd II.. Alram, M., and Gyselen, R. (2012), pp. 45–55
2. The Sasanian Era: The Idea of Iran, Vol. III. Curtis, V. S., and Stewart, S. (eds.) (2008), pp. 17–30
3. Sasanian Numismatics. Göbl, R. (1971), Table 4, nos. 54–65
4. British Museum Collection Database: Object C_1888-1208-490. BM registration no. 1888,1208.490
5. Classical Numismatic Group Triton XXVII Catalog. Triton XXVII (10 Jan 2024), Lot 441
6. Classical Numismatic Group Coin Archives: CoinID 371645. Triton XXII (7 Jan 2019), Lot 483
7. Wikimedia Commons: Gold coin of Bahram II.jpg. File:Gold_coin_of_Bahram_II.jpg
8. Coins, Art and Chronology: Essays on the Pre-Islamic History of the Indo-Iranian Borderlands. Curtis, V. S. (1999/2000), pp. 241–254