Historical Context

Khusrau II, remembered in Persian historiography as Khusraw Parvīz ("The Ever-Victorious"), ascended the Sasanian throne in 590 CE following the palace deposition and murder of his father, Hormizd IV, orchestrated by the grandees Vistahm and Vinduyih. His initial accession was immediately contested: General Bahram Chobin revolted, claimed the crown as Bahram VI, and forced the young king into Byzantine exile (Malek 2021, pp. 157–159). Securing military intervention and financial backing from the East Roman emperor Maurice (Maurikios), Khusrau crushed Bahram Chobin at the Battle of the Blarathon in 591 CE, re-establishing the Sasanian dynasty at Ctesiphon. Following this restoration, Khusrau abandoned the traditional mural crown of his initial year (Göbl Type I/1) in favor of an expansive winged crown invoking Verethragna, the Zoroastrian divinity of aggressive triumph (Göbl 1971, pl. 13–14).

Following the overthrow and murder of Maurice by Phocas in 602 CE, Khusrau initiated the protracted Roman–Sasanian War of 602–628 CE (Howard-Johnston 2021, pp. 1–25). Over the subsequent two decades, Sasanian armies annexed Roman Mesopotamia, Syria, and Palestine—capturing Jerusalem in 614 CE—before conquering Egypt by 619 CE and pushing cavalry detachments to Chalcedon on the Bosporus. Mobilizing and sustaining this continental campaign required unprecedented fiscal output. Mints operating across Mesopotamia and the Iranian plateau struck enormous volumes of thin silver drachms (Akbarzadeh & Schindel 2017, pp. 9–14). The historian al-Tabari recorded that the imperial treasury expanded from 800 million drachms in Khusrau's regnal year 13 to 1.6 billion drachms by regnal year 30 (Akbarzadeh & Schindel 2017, p. 11). Although the counter-offensive of Emperor Heraclius ultimately led to the sack of Dastagird and Khusrau's deposition and execution by his son Kavad II in February 628 CE, the late drachm of Khusrau II survived as the monetary backbone of the Near East well into the early Islamic period.

Obverse Iconographic Composition

The obverse of the standard silver drachm presents a draped right-facing bust of Khusrau II rendered in profile. The monarch displays a pointed beard, an upward-curling mustache, and stylized curled hair gathered into a spherical chignon (korymbos) resting at the nape of the neck. He is adorned with imperial regalia, including a beaded necklace, a drop earring with a large central pearl, and diadem ribbons that billow behind his shoulders.

The composition is defined by the elaborate winged crown (Göbl Crown II):

  • Crown Construction: A stepped crenellated mural base capped by two large, outstretched bird wings flanking a central crescent that encloses a six-pointed star. In Sasanian visual culture, the wings symbolize divine victory and the personal protection of Verethragna.
  • Enclosure System: The royal portrait is enclosed within a double concentric ring of raised pearls.
  • Marginal Astral Emblems: Outside the double pearl ring, three star-in-crescent motifs are positioned at 3 o'clock, 6 o'clock, and 9 o'clock. These celestial devices are widely interpreted by numismatists as emblems of universal imperial rule sustained by heavenly favor.
  • Marginal Inscription: Strikings belonging to Göbl Type II/3 incorporate the Middle Persian word ʾpd in the lower-right margin (between 4h and 5h), situated between the outer pearl ring and the flan edge.

Obverse Epigraphy and Inscriptions

Obverse legends are executed in cursive Late Pahlavi (Book Pahlavi ductus) rather than the earlier monumental inscriptional script. The legends combine Middle Persian phonetic spellings with Aramaic heterograms (logograms). Standard epigraphic transliterations and translations are structured as follows (British Museum O1956,0409.35; Malek 2021, pp. 170–174):

  • Royal Invocational Formula:
    • Position: Left inner field behind the royal portrait (10h to 11h), inscribed across two curved registers.
    • Transliteration: GDH ʾpzwt or GDH ʾpzwty.
    • Epigraphic Analysis: GDH is the Aramaic heterogram (gaddeh), read in Middle Persian as xwarrah ("royal glory", "fortune", or "splendour"). It is accompanied by the verbal form ʾpzwt / ʾpzwty (abzūd / abzūy).
    • Translation: "May royal glory increase" or "Royal fortune has increased".
  • Royal Name:
    • Position: Right inner field in front of the royal profile (2h to 3h).
    • Transliteration: hwslwb (or variant hwslwy).
    • Epigraphic Analysis: Middle Persian phonetic rendering of Husraw / Khosrow.
    • Translation: "Khusrau".
  • Marginal Acclamation (Type II/3 diagnostic):
    • Position: Outer margin, second quadrant (4h to 5h).
    • Transliteration: ʾpd.
    • Epigraphic Analysis: Middle Persian ābad / āp̄ad.
    • Translation: "Praise", "excellent", or "wonderful".

Reverse Iconographic Composition

The reverse composition centers upon the Zoroastrian sacred fire altar (ātašdān), symbolizing the divine covenant and the legitimate Sasanian state cult (Göbl 1971, Tables 13–15):

  1. The Fire Altar: The altar comprises a tiered stepped plinth supporting a slender central column or shaft tied with royal diadem ribbons whose ends curl upward. The upper altar receptacle holds a blazing sacrificial flame with multiple stylized tiers.
  2. Celestial Flanking Motifs: Flanking the sacred fire above the attendants are a six-pointed star to the left and a crescent moon to the right.
  3. Flanking Figures: Two stylized attendants stand beside the altar, oriented toward the center or facing frontally, with their hands resting on staves or the hilts of grounded swords. While early numismatic literature identified these figures as the king and a high priest (mōbad), modern specialists interpret them more neutrally as ritual guardians or attendants. On Type II/3 strikings, the attendants characteristically wear domed bonnets or caps rather than mural crowns.
  4. Border System: The entire reverse scene is encircled by a triple concentric ring of raised pearls.
  5. Marginal Astral Symbols: Four star-in-crescent devices appear in the outer margin aligned with the cardinal directions at 12 o'clock, 3 o'clock, 6 o'clock, and 9 o'clock.

Reverse Epigraphy and Inscriptions

The reverse legends are engraved strictly in cursive Late Pahlavi within the inner field, flanking the central altar column:

  • Regnal Year (Date Formula):
    • Position: Left field, adjacent to the left attendant (at 9 o'clock).
    • Epigraphic Structure: Written out as Middle Persian numerals indicating regnal years from year 2 (twryn) through year 39 (čhl / ywkčhl). For example, comparison specimen British Museum O1956,0409.35 bears the regnal year inscription šyšsyh (regnal year 36, corresponding to circa 625 CE).
  • Mint Signature (Administrative Monogram):
    • Position: Right field, adjacent to the right attendant (at 3 o'clock).
    • Epigraphic Structure: A late Pahlavi abbreviation of two to four letters denoting the issuing mint or administrative region. On comparison specimen British Museum O1956,0409.35, the monogram reads BBA (Dar, designating the Royal Court or Camp mint). Other frequent signatures across the series include ST (Stakhr), WYHC (Veh-az-Amid-Kavad / Arrajan), ART (Ardashir-Khurrah), DA (Darabgird), AW (Ohrmazd-Ardashir / Ahvaz), and LD (Ray).

Typology and Documented Variants

Late Sasanian drachm typology is classified according to the typology established by Robert Göbl and refined by subsequent hoard catalogues (Akbarzadeh & Schindel 2017, pp. 12–14; Malek 2021, pp. 168–174):

Göbl Type I/1 (Regnal Year 1, 590 CE)

  • Obverse: Royal bust right wearing a stepped mural crown surmounted by a crescent and globe (korymbos), continuing the crown design of Hormizd IV. Double pearl border.
  • Reverse: Fire altar flanked by attendants; single or double pearl ring.
  • Characteristics: Struck exclusively during Khusrau's brief initial reign prior to Bahram Chobin's insurrection. Extremely rare.

Göbl Type II/2 (Regnal Years 2–11/12, 591–601/602 CE)

  • Obverse: Royal bust right wearing the newly instituted winged crown surmounted by star and crescent. Double pearl circle with three marginal star-in-crescent devices. Margin clean, lacking marginal inscriptions.
  • Reverse: Fire altar with attendants wearing mural crowns; triple pearl border with four marginal star-in-crescents.
  • Characteristics: Struck following Khusrau's restoration up to the middle of his reign.

Göbl Type II/3 (Regnal Years 11/12–39, 601/602–628 CE)

  • Obverse: Similar to Type II/2, but with the Pahlavi endorsement ʾpd added in the lower-right margin (4h–5h).
  • Reverse: Triple pearl border; attendants typically depicted wearing domed caps or rounded bonnets rather than mural headdresses.
  • Characteristics: Imperial mass issue accounting for the bulk of extant Sasanian drachms struck during the Roman-Sasanian War.

Frontal Bust Special Issues (Göbl Type IV/5; Tyler-Smith Series)

  • Obverse: Royal bust depicted facing fully forward (frontal bust) wearing the winged crown and regalia.
  • Reverse: Fire altar with attendants, or a facing bust of the Royal Glory (xwarrah) / Anahita emerging from the flames.
  • Characteristics: Struck in very limited numbers in select regnal years (notably years 23, 26–28, and 36–37), interpreted as ceremonial donatives or victory strikings (Tyler-Smith 2022, pp. 181–197).

Scholarly Debates and Attribution Limitations

Several interpretive questions remain contested in late Sasanian numismatics:

1. Function of the Marginal Legend ʾpd

The introduction of ʾpd (ābad) during regnal years 11–12 has elicited contrasting scholarly interpretations:

  • Fiscal/Metrological Guarantee: Some early numismatists proposed that ʾpd served as an official assay mark or mint guarantee testifying to the weight and silver purity of the drachm during military mobilization.
  • Propagandistic Acclamation: Modern specialists, including Schindel, argue that ʾpd represents an ideological acclamation meaning "excellent" or "praise" (comparable to contemporary Byzantine imperial acclamations), celebrating dynastic stability and imperial fortunes.

2. Localization of Mint Signatures

While signatures like ST (Stakhr) and ART (Ardashir-Khurrah) are universally accepted, others remain debated (Malek 2021, pp. 158–160):

  • WYHC: Traditionally localized to Veh-az-Amid-Kavad (Arrajan in Fars), but alternatively suggested as Weh-Antiyok-Husraw near Ctesiphon.
  • BBA: Transliterated as Dar ("The Gate" or "The Court"), representing either the central treasury at Ctesiphon or an itinerant court/camp mint following the royal military headquarters.
  • AYLAN / AYL: Variously identified with Ērān-āsān-kar-Kawād or mints in Khuzistan.

3. Chronological Calculations and Imitative Issues

Sasanian regnal years operated on a 365-day non-leap Zoroastrian civil calendar, meaning that New Year (Nowruz) shifted by one Julian day every four years. Consequently, exact conversions from regnal dates to Julian years require astronomical calendar adjustments. Furthermore, because Type II/3 drachms formed the dominant regional currency, they were imitated widely by early Umayyad governors (who added marginal Arabic legends like bism Allāh) and by eastern Hunnic and Hephthalite authorities in Tokharistan. Cataloguers must verify margins, epigraphic ductus, and fabric before confirming an imperial Sasanian attribution.

References

  1. British Museum Collection Online: Khusrau II Drachm (O1956,0409.35). Object record O1956,0409.35 (Mint BBA, Year 36, wt 4.07 g, diam 32 mm)
  2. Sasanian Coins from Āmul, Tabaristān (Malek 2021). In Ancient Iranian Numismatics: In Memory of David Sellwood, ed. M. Faghfoury, pp. 157–191
  3. Sylloge Nummorum Sasanidarum: Kawad I Coinage. Encyclopaedia Iranica article referencing Göbl (1971) typological tables 13–15
  4. A Die Study of the Year 21 Gold Coins of Khusro II (Tyler-Smith 2022). The Ukrainian Numismatic Annual 6, pp. 181–197
  5. Sylloge Nummorum Sasanidarum Iran: A Late Sasanian Hoard from Orumiyeh (Akbarzadeh & Schindel 2017). ÖAW Denkschriften 493, pp. 9–22, cat. nos. 332–1200
  6. The Last Great War of Antiquity (Howard-Johnston 2021). Oxford University Press, pp. 1–25, 170–178