Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr Silver Drahm

Monetary Context and the Second Fitna

The death of the Umayyad caliph Mu'awiya I in 680 AD (AH 60) triggered the Second Fitna, a prolonged civil conflict over the leadership of the Islamic community. In the Hijaz, Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr rejected the succession of Yazid I and subsequently declared himself caliph following the death of Yazid in 683 AD (AH 64). Ibn al-Zubayr's authority was soon recognized beyond western Arabia, gaining broad allegiance across southern Iraq, the Iranian plateau, and Khurasan. The monetary economy of these eastern territories relied entirely on the Sasanian silver drahm, a denomination with which local populations, merchants, and military garrisons were intimately familiar. Rather than attempting a radical disruption of the established economic infrastructure, the Zubayrid administration continued the hybrid Arab-Sasanian monetary model established in the decades following the early Islamic conquests. Silver drahms produced in provinces loyal to Ibn al-Zubayr adhered to the existing late Sasanian metrological framework, ensuring uninterrupted commercial viability and tax collection while functioning as potent vehicles of political legitimacy.

Mints and Regional Production

Zubayrid silver drahms were struck at an extensive network of mint workshops operating across the Iranian provinces, particularly in Fars, Kirman, Khuzistan, and Khurasan. Because Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr resided in Mecca, direct administration of coin production fell to his appointed governors, most notably his brother Mus'ab ibn al-Zubayr in southern Iraq and regional commanders such as al-Muhallab ibn Abi Sufra and Umar ibn Ubayd Allah. Mint signatures appear in traditional Pahlavi abbreviations in the right field of the reverse. Among the most active mints striking in Ibn al-Zubayr's name or under his regional officers were Bishapur (abbreviated BYSh), Darabgird (DA), Istakhr (ST), Jayy (GD), and various workshops in Kirman and Sijistan. In certain eastern outposts, issues were produced on irregular or decentralized bases to pay military levies engaged against Kharijite insurgents or Umayyad counter-offensives. Die alignment is generally variable, consistent with hammered striking practices of the period, and flans show careful preparation to maintain customary dimensions.

Obverse Iconography and Variations

The obverse design of the Zubayrid silver drahm is directly adapted from the canonical portraiture of the Sasanian king Khusro II. It features a right-facing royal bust adorned with elaborate pearl-bordered garments, an earring, and a complex winged crown surmounted by a crescent and globe or star. Ribbons stream outward from the crown and diadem behind the head. In the right field, immediately facing the monarch's profile, the name of Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr is inscribed in Middle Persian Pahlavi script, usually rendered phonetically as 'APDLA Y ZWBYRAN' ('Abd Allah, son of al-Zubayr'). Behind the head, the traditional Pahlavi protective invocation 'GDH 'PZWLT' (frahzud, 'may his royal glory increase') is typically retained. In the outer margin, separated from the central portrait by concentric bead-and-line borders, appear astral symbols consisting of star-in-crescent motifs at the cardinal points, accompanied by Arabic devotional and legitimation formulas.

Reverse Iconography and Elements

Consistent with the Arab-Sasanian series as a whole, the reverse of the Zubayrid silver drahm retains the Zoroastrian religious iconography of the late Sasanian Empire. The field is dominated by a central fire altar (atasdan) with a stepped base and capital, from which stylised flames arise. The altar is flanked on either side by two attendant figures, often interpreted as priests or royal guards, standing facing forward or slightly turned toward the altar, each holding a staff or sacred bundle. Flanking the central composition are two crucial epigraphic fields: to the left, the regnal or calendar year is spelled out in Middle Persian Pahlavi words, and to the right, the Pahlavi abbreviation indicates the mint of origin. Triple concentric linear borders surround the central scene, punctuated along the outer perimeter by four star-and-crescent symbols positioned at ninety-degree intervals, maintaining the cosmological framing traditional to late antique Persian numismatics.

Epigraphy and Marginal Legends

The epigraphic repertoire of the Zubayrid silver drahm is bilingual, combining Middle Persian in the Pahlavi script with early Arabic in archaic Kufic characters. The primary obverse inner legend identifies the issuer in Pahlavi, while the marginal zones display Arabic pious phrases that assert Islamic hegemony and Zubayrid theological stances. The most famous marginal inscription appearing on silver drahms of this family is the introductory phrase 'bismillah' ('In the name of God'), often expanded on Zubayrid pieces to 'bismillah Muhammad rasul Allah' ('In the name of God, Muhammad is the messenger of God'). Certain exceptional issues, particularly from mints in Fars such as Bishapur and Darabgird, record the Arabic title 'Amir al-Mu'minin' ('Commander of the Faithful') either in Arabic or transliterated into Pahlavi script as 'amiyr-i wurroyishnigan'. This marked an important milestone in the public epigraphic assertion of the caliphal office on Islamic silver coinage.

Typology and Chronological Evolution

The chronology of Zubayrid silver drahms corresponds to the expansion and subsequent contraction of Ibn al-Zubayr's political sphere from AH 63/64 to AH 72/73 (approximately 683 to 692 AD). The series exhibits three major typological categories: drahms struck explicitly in the name of Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr as caliph; issues struck by his subordinate governors bearing their own names while operating under his nominal suzerainty; and anonymous or transitionally inscribed pieces bearing Zubayrid partisan slogans. Dating on the coins follows either the post-Yazid era or the standard Islamic Hijri calendar, expressed in Pahlavi. The earliest specimens appear around AH 63-64 in Kirman and Fars. As the Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik consolidated his military position, recovering Iraq in AH 71-72 (691 AD) through the defeat and death of Mus'ab ibn al-Zubayr, the minting of Zubayrid silver rapidly ceased. The final drahms carrying Ibn al-Zubayr's direct authority date to AH 73 (692 AD), coinciding with his defeat and death during the siege of Mecca by al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf.

Circulation, Weight Standards, and Legacy

Zubayrid silver drahms were struck on thin, broad flans adhering to the theoretical Sasanian drahm standard of roughly 4.0 grams, though surviving specimens typically range between 3.8 and 4.2 grams with a diameter between 28 and 32 millimeters. These coins circulated alongside contemporary Umayyad Arab-Sasanian issues struck in Syria and northern Mesopotamia, as well as surviving pre-conquest Sasanian drahms of Hormizd IV and Khusro II. Hoard evidence from Iran and Iraq confirms that monetary authorities and private individuals treated Zubayrid and Umayyad drahms as interchangeable bullion tokens provided the silver fineness remained unadulterated. Following the collapse of the Zubayrid caliphate, the Umayyad regime reclaimed the eastern mints, initially issuing their own modified Arab-Sasanian types before Abd al-Malik instituted his complete reform to pure epigraphic post-reform dirhams in AH 77 to 79 (696 to 699 AD). The Zubayrid adoption of the full prophetic formula on silver coinage is widely recognized as a catalyst that prompted the Umayyads to adopt explicit Islamic scriptural declarations on their own state currencies.

References

1. Checklist of Islamic Coins (Third Edition). pp. 17-21
2. History, Geography and Numismatics in the First Century of Islamic Coinage. Revue Suisse de Numismatique 65, pp. 231-262
3. Arabosasanidische Numismatik. pp. 64-78
4. Arab-Sasanian Numismatics and History during the Early Islamic Period. Royal Numismatic Society Special Publication
5. A Catalogue of the Arab-Sassanian Coins in the British Museum. pp. 32-45