Origins and Lineage
Pharnabazos II belonged to the prestigious Pharnacid dynasty, an aristocratic collateral branch of the Achaemenid royal family. The lineage traced its descent from Pharnaces I (Parnaka), son of Arsames and paternal uncle of King Darius I the Great. Pharnaces I served as the chief economic officer and mayor of the palace at Persepolis, establishing an enduring hereditary foundation for his family. In 477 BC, his son Artabazos I was awarded the hereditary satrapy of Hellespontine Phrygia (also known to imperial records as Dascylitis or Tyaiy Drayahya) following his distinguished command during Xerxes I's Greek campaigns. Artabazos I was succeeded by Pharnabazos I, who was followed in turn by Pharnaces II. Pharnabazos II was born into this governing dynasty around the middle of the fifth century BC, inheriting extensive personal estates, fertile agricultural domains, and deep ancestral authority anchored at the provincial capital of Dascylium near the Propontis.
Sources: weiskopf-dascylium, lendering-pharnabazus
Rise to Power
Pharnabazos II succeeded his father Pharnaces II as satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia prior to the winter of 413/412 BC. Pharnaces II had last been recorded in official records around 422 BC conducting negotiations with Greek delegations. By 413 BC, in the wake of the catastrophic Athenian defeat in Sicily, King Darius II instructed his western governors to enforce long-delayed tribute collections from the Greek coastal cities and establish diplomatic contact with Sparta. Pharnabazos assumed office amidst fierce bureaucratic and territorial rivalry with Tissaphernes, the satrap of Lydia and Caria. Both provincial governors sought the favor of the Great King by competing to conclude an anti-Athenian alliance with Sparta. Although Tissaphernes initially concluded the first formal pact, Pharnabazos quickly seized the military initiative by offering Spartan commanders direct access to his ports, timber from Mount Ida, and satrapal funds to construct a fleet on the Hellespont aimed at severing Athens' vital grain route.
Sources: weiskopf-dascylium, lendering-pharnabazus
Satrapal Reign and Naval Command
Throughout his satrapal reign from circa 413 BC until 387 BC, Pharnabazos proved to be one of the most energetic military leaders in western Asia Minor. During the Decelean War, he fought tenaciously alongside Spartan forces. He personally led cavalry contingents into the surf at Abydos in 411 BC and attempted to relieve the Spartan land army during the Battle of Cyzicus in 410 BC. Following the disaster at Cyzicus, Pharnabazos demonstrated remarkable resourcefulness by providing defeated Spartan survivors with clothing, provisions, and two months of satrapal pay, directing them to build a new fleet at Antandros. When Spartan policy turned aggressively against Persia after the Peloponnesian War and the expedition of Cyrus the Younger, Pharnabazos faced Spartan invasions led by Thibron, Dercylidas, and King Agesilaus II. In response, Pharnabazos secured funding from King Artaxerxes II to build an imperial fleet in Cyprus and Phoenicia, placing the exiled Athenian admiral Conon in joint command. In August 394 BC, Pharnabazos and Conon achieved a crushing victory over the Spartan fleet at the Battle of Cnidus, permanently terminating Sparta's naval hegemony in the Aegean.
Sources: weiskopf-dascylium, schmitt-conon, lendering-pharnabazus
Imperial Administration and Governance
Pharnabazos administered Hellespontine Phrygia through a blend of direct Persian gubernatorial control, regional feudal lords, and local Greek dynasts. Dascylium, his administrative seat, housed an imperial palace, military garrisons, and extensive provincial archives staffed by scribes who recorded transactions on clay bullae, papyri, and parchments. A prominent example of his administrative flexibility was his appointment of local vassals, such as Zenis of Dardanus and later Zenis's widow Mania, whom Pharnabazos appointed sub-satrap of Aeolis. Mania dutifully managed tribute collection, governed provincial strongholds, and personally accompanied satrapal campaigns until her murder, after which Pharnabazos intervened swiftly to execute the assassin and secure the district. His military establishment consisted of elite Persian and Hyrcanian cavalry regiments, backed by indigenous levies and seasoned Greek mercenaries. To finance his military campaigns, Pharnabazos exercised the authority to strike municipal and military silver coinage at mints including Cyzicus, Lampsacus, and later Tarsus, frequently bearing Persian heraldic emblems or his own portrait in Persian attire.
Sources: weiskopf-dascylium, lendering-pharnabazus
Foreign Relations and Diplomacy
Pharnabazos excelled in diplomatic maneuvering, maintaining royal interests against internal rivals and external adversaries alike. His protracted rivalry with Tissaphernes shaped imperial Aegean policy until Tissaphernes was executed in 395 BC, allowing Pharnabazos greater operational independence. A famous meeting recorded by Xenophon between Pharnabazos and King Agesilaus II in 395 BC highlighted his diplomatic stature: Pharnabazos sat directly upon the grass with the Spartan king and boldly reproached him for ravaging the domains of an ally who had loyally supported Sparta against Athens. Agesilaus, moved by his candor, agreed to evacuate Pharnabazos's territory and established a mutual guest-friendship. Following the victory at Cnidus, Pharnabazos sailed into Greek waters in 393 BC, providing funds to rebuild the Long Walls of Athens and fortifying anti-Spartan alliances during the Corinthian War. This sustained pressure forced Sparta to capitulate to Persian diplomatic terms, culminating in the Peace of Antalcidas in 387/386 BC, which officially restored all Greek cities of Asia Minor to Persian rule.
Sources: weiskopf-dascylium, schmitt-conon, lendering-pharnabazus
Court Life, Culture, and Religion
At Dascylium, Pharnabazos presided over a magnificent court that integrated Iranian aristocratic culture with Greek and Anatolian customs. The satrapal residence featured an elaborate paradeisos, an expansive walled hunting park filled with woodlands, fish-bearing streams, and wild game, designed to mirror the grand royal paradises of Susa and Persepolis. Archaeological excavations at modern Ergili have uncovered architectural reliefs and bullae demonstrating this vibrant cultural syncretism. Zoroastrian religious rites were observed at the provincial court; contemporary Graeco-Persian stone reliefs from Dascylium depict Iranian Magi wearing mouth-veils (itaphana) and conducting animal sacrifices before fire altars. Despite maintaining strict adherence to Persian courtly dress and traditional hierarchy, Pharnabazos moved comfortably in Greek intellectual and political circles. His satrapal coinage introduced realistic portraiture wearing the Persian soft cap (kyrbasia) and diadem, creating a distinctive numismatic style that bridged Greek minting artistry with imperial Persian iconography.
Sources: weiskopf-dascylium, lendering-pharnabazus
Later Career and Historical Legacy
Following the triumph of the King's Peace in 387 BC, Artaxerxes II summoned Pharnabazos to the royal court in high honor. In recognition of his loyalty and naval successes, the Great King gave Pharnabazos his daughter Apama in marriage and transferred the satrapy of Hellespontine Phrygia to Pharnabazos's son Ariobarzanes. Between circa 379 BC and 373 BC, Pharnabazos was entrusted with supreme military command alongside Tithraustes and later Datames to assemble an imperial armada in Cilicia and the Levant for the reconquest of rebel Egypt. Working alongside the Athenian mercenary general Iphicrates, Pharnabazos launched the Egyptian invasion in 373 BC; however, tactical friction between the commanders and the rising inundation of the Nile forced the expedition to withdraw. Pharnabazos retired to the royal court, where he died after 373 BC. His dynasty remained prominent: his son Artabazos II governed Hellespontine Phrygia and served Darius III and Alexander the Great, while his granddaughter Barsine bore Alexander a son, Heracles.
Sources: weiskopf-dascylium, schmitt-datames, lendering-pharnabazus
References
- DASCYLIUM. Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. VII, Fasc. 1, pp. 85-90
- CONON OF ATHENS. Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. VI, Fasc. 2, pp. 133-134
- DATAMES. Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. VII, Fasc. 1, pp. 97-98
- Pharnabazus (2). Livius.org